Transferred meaning

- secondary = for new related concepts (a green beginner, green years = the concept of growth, inexperience)

- figurative = based on the transfer of meanings (green with envy)

The ability of the word to denote some thing, idea or phenomenon of the reality is viewed as its denotative meaning. Denotative meaning is the basic information which names a concept of the reality. It is primary, basic information, which forms the subject of the message or discourse.

D.Crystal defines denotation as the objective relationship between a lexeme and the reality to which it refers. A denotation identifies the central aspect of lexical meaning, the concept of a 'dictionary definition'. E.g. the word spectacles means 'object which balances on our nose in front of the eyes'.

First, it is necessary to evaluate the writer's choice of words, particularly for the specific effect they create for the reader. Some words are used to arouse positive feelings, some are meant to be neutral, and others are meant to convey a negative response. Denotation refers to a word's explicit, or lit­eral, meaning; it is for this reason that denotation is sometimes referred to as the dictionary definition of a word. The word desk, for example, denotes or points to the piece of furniture made of wood or metal where one sits to study or work, and therefore does not conjure up any particular emotional feeling. Similarly, the word lemon usually points to a kind of fruit that belongs to the citrus family.

Apart from their primary, direct, or main meaning words can have secondary, additional or connotative meaning.

Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the cluster of suggestions, emotional responses, or implications—positive or negative- that a word carries with it in addition to its literal or explicit meaning (its denotation).

The word lemon, for example, was cited as an example of denotation in the previous paragraph, but it might also have a negative connotation in a different context if, for example, one describes a car as a "lemon." In the same way, dog is generally neutral (and denotative), since it refers literally to the four-legged house pet. But "she worked like a dog" suggests an uncomplaining diligence, and therefore has a positive connotation; "he looks like a dog" is, however, decidedly uncomplimentary. On the other hand, purebred has a positive connotation, while cur carries negative overtones. Nude has a positive connotation (coming from its association with art), whereas naked can have a negative connotation, as in the phrase "naked women." Childlike sounds positive (suggesting sweetness, innocence, and the other endearing traits children have), whereas childish has a negative connotation, whether it is used to describe children or adults. One last example: The dictionary lists several words as synonyms for secret, includ­ing stealthy, covert, clandestine, furtive, surreptitious, and underhand. The notes after the definitions clarify their meanings and suggest both their denotative and connotative meanings. All apply to something purposely concealed from view or knowledge, but secret is the most general and, there­fore, the weakest (or least judgmental) in suggesting anything beyond its basic meaning. The rest all carry varying degrees of negative connotative asso­ciations. As you already know from the introductory section on vocabulary, these explanations from the dictionary are invaluable in determining ex­actly what emotional response a writer has in mind and what impact a word is meant to have on the reader. It is the secondary information, associated with the situation of discourse and its participants. Connotation refers to the personal aspect of lexical meaning; often, it is the emotional associations which a lexeme incidentally brings to mind (D. Cristal). E.g. the word hack means journalist but has some derogatory connotations.

Kukharenko speaks of denotational meaning as that one which informs of the subject of communication; connotational meaning, in its turn, informs about the participants of communication.

Scholars differ in the number and specifications of word meanings.

Prof. I.R.Galperin speaks of 1) logical (referential or direct), 2) emotive and 3) nominal meaning. The latter is mostly found in proper names.

V.A.Kukharenko gives a list of connotational meanings that includes seven entries: (1) pragmatic (aims at the perlocutionary effect of the utterance), (2) associative (gives individual associations corresponding to 'related and non-related notions'), (3) ideological, or conceptual (reveals political, social, or ideological preferences of the user), (4) evaluative (states the value of the indicated notions), (5) emotive (reveals the emotional aspect of cognition and perception), (6) expressive (creates the image of the object), (7) stylistic (indicates the register or the situation of communication).

I.V.Arnold states that connotation is made up of four components: (1) functional-stylistic, (2) evaluative, (3) emotive, and (4) expressive (figurative).

Connotative meaning is and additional information which a word may acquire in speech. Words, which carry only the first type of information, are stylistically neutral. But in a definite context any of them may acquire certain stylistic connotations.

There may be distinguished four types of connotative meaning:

1/ functional stylistic meaning is connected with the constant usage of the word in definite speech situations: in the language of official documents, scientific language, poetry. Functional-stylistic meaning results from a constant usage of a language unit in certain spheres of communication (e.g. abundance of technical terms in scientific language etc.).

In analyzing the vocabulary of a text or a speech, patterns of usage would be the subject of comment. For instance, the frequent occurrence of technical terms in car repair manual, or of emotive words in a tabloid newspaper article.

The share of stylistically loaded vocabulary differs in various functional styles. The language of science and law attempts to avoid vocabulary, which reflects highly connotative information. In general, the more a domain or topic is controversial, the more it will contain loaded vocabulary, providing interlocutors with language means to reinforce their point of view.

2 / evaluative meaning reflects a certain evaluation of denotate, the attitude of the speaker to the object described. Evaluative meaning reflects a positive or negative evaluation of the denotate/referent.

Evaluation may be either favorable or unfavorable: well-known (neutral) – famous (positive evaluation), notorious (negative evaluation) – відомий, славетний, сумнозвісний; lofty – exalted – pompous; quixotic – visionary – chimerical;

There are many words, which carry negative connotations as well as positive ones: A group of youngsters stood on the street corner. -A group of youths stood on the street corner. The word youngster carries a positive evaluation whereas the synonym youth has a negative one: one might chat with the first group but it is better to avoid eye contact with the second one, which is socially challenging.

3/ emotional meaning expresses an emotional attitude of the speaker to denotate: scoundrel, villain, skunk. Emotive meaning expresses an emotional attitude: basket case, wishy-washy (беспомощный, безхарактерный человек), fuddy-duddy (старомодный человек), flunky (подлиза), fish out of water ("белая ворона"), cold fish (холодный человек), queer fish, screw (чудак) etc.

4/ expressive figurative meaning is and intensification of an utterance based on the transference of meaning from one object to another: His eyes were lumps of ice. Море брикалось, душа самотньо капала (Семенко).

Expressive (figurative) meaning is based on the metaphoric transfer of meaning from one object to another: He was a slab of stone. She slid out of the room.

Different connotative meanings may overlap. They may be present in one language unit, occur in various combinations or may be totally absent. In practice, it is very difficult to discriminate among these four components of connotation. E.g.:

Then Tim Kendall lost control of himself. “For God’s sake, you damned bitch, “ he said, “shut up, can’t you? D’you want to get me hanged? Shut up I tell you. Shut that big ugly mouth of yours”. (A. Christie)

Connotations can change with the passage of time. E.g. the word gentle originally meant 'clan', now it has very positive associations. The word cowboy first developed quite positive connotations, now to these have been added a number of negative overtones in certain regional varieties. E.g.:

• in British English, it can mean an irresponsible or incompetent workman or business: cowboy plumbers;

• in Northern Ireland, it can mean a member of a secret gang;

• in American English, it can mean an automobile driver who violates the traffic rules or a factory worker who breaks the rules set by his trade union.

Connotations vary according to the experience of individuals. For example, for many people, the word bus is associated with cheapness and convenience; for others, with discomfort and inconvenience. Some connotations can be shared by large groups of people. The word city can connote 'bustle', 'crowds', 'dust', 'excitement', 'fun', and even 'sin'.

When a lexeme is highly charged with connotations, it is commonly referred to as 'loaded'. Stylistic loading, or colouring, is regarded as a complex phenomenon. It is an 'additional content of the word (or expression), its attendant semantic or stylistic nuances that are superimposed on its basic meaning and express various expressive-emotive-evaluative overtones' (Akhmanova).

Cf.: slender/thin/skinny; overweight/plump/fat. Connotation appears to be inherent not only in words but also in units of other language levels.

For instance, the idioms to kick the bucket, to beat around the bush, to call a spade a spade, etc. carry a definite stylistic load.

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