Note.Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be called disphemisms

Disphemisms are conspicuously rough, rude and impolite words andword-combinations. The speaker resorts to disphemisms to express his negative emotions, such as irritation, spite, hate, scorn, mockery, animosity. Here are some of them:

To die = to kick the bucket;

To urinate = to piss;

A German soldier (W. W. II) = krauthead;

A Negro = kinky-head;

To treat someone badly, unfairly = to give someone the finger;

обличчя = морда, рило, пика, будка;

noмepmu = oдубіти, дуба врізати, здохнути;

грубіян = хамло.

METAPHOR

Metaphor is the second figure of quality. Metaphor, like metonymy, is also the result of transference of the name of one object to another ob­ject. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).

Classification. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles.

1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee met­aphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like cliches:

to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire;

seeds of evil; a flight of imagination; floods of tears; хмара запитань;

nomiпотік емоцій/сліз; братися за розум; перемивати кісточки;

загострювати увагу; лізти в голову; спадати на думку.

Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are creat­ed in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be

chewed and digested.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.

Золото мистецтва з переляком сплавити, добути з брехні – ненадійна

алхімія.

Де котиться між голубих лугів

Хмарина ніжна з білими плечима,

Я продаю сонця – оранжеві, тугі,

З тривожними музичними очима.

Дим розгортає крила і пориває з собою вогонь.

Се вже не діти в червоних спідничках.

Се щось велике, завзяте, сердитий звір,

Що хоче скинуть з грудей вагу,

Що простягає спідсподу лапи з синіми жилами,

Душить й підгортає під себе.

Роззявляє криваву пащу й жере.

Рве зубом й лютує.

2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. A nominational metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion is named by means of the old vocabulary:

the arm of the chair, the foot of the hill, ніжка cmoлy, крило будинку, гребінь хвилі, глава книги, рукав річки.

Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy.

When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cognitive metaphor is formed:

One more day has died.

A witty idea has come to me.

Theroad lead Jack there.

Thesight took John's attention.

The shore was drowning in the fog.

Лукaca nepecлідувало відчуття, ніби за ним стежать.

Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.

The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor. Imaginative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bearing, picturesque and poetic:

Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.

Time was bleeding away.

If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

У розлогому полумиску долини, що по самі вінця затекла сонцем, колобродиться, вирує ярмарок.

3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or according to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as simple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

A good book is the best of friends. The wind was a torrent of darkness. ide.

He6o Hacynujiocb xuapamu. A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings:

The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he does not resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing.

Mu нахилили наші обличчя над урвищем вниз, і оли очі нфші добігли, минаючи хаос поламаних скель та диких рослин, до берега моря, ми узріли, як воно тріпалось тихо в сітці яскравих бліків, наче зловлене в невід з синіх, зеленх і рожевих мотузок, а крізь ту сітку на нас дивилась мозаїка дна: фіолетові плями морських водоростей, блакитні очі підводних пісків, стара бронза і темно-синя ємаль, що зливались в один вогняний сплав.

Заворушились кляті питання, кляті думки і болі; вони звідусіль лізли в голову, справляли там і похорони, і поминки. І вже очей і серця не тішив ні дитячий шепіт колосу, ні тихий зоряний пил, ні місячне мариво.

In fact, a sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple metaphors, most of which are cognitive. This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning of the first, initial metaphor.

Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.

Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols. A symbol is an object which stands for something else. It is a reference in speech or in writing which is made to stand for ideas, feelings, events, or conditions. A symbol is usually something tangible or concrete which evokes something abstract. The following are standard symbols in the context of English and Ukrainian cultures:

the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the cross stands for Christianity, the red colour stands for passion, the ace of spades stands for death.

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