Non-verbal

LOVE

middle aged

couple playing

ten nis

when the

game ends

and they

go home

the net

will still

be be

tween them (Roger McGough 1971)

In this poem, McGough employs a few deviations from the norm to render the ideas that a human relationship is a game or sport (conceptual metaphor). What is particularly marked about the poem is the way the deviation from the generally accepted graphic presentation of poetic lines. The particular spatial organization of tennis, with its back and forth movement between ball and payers, is captured stylistically by the break up of the text into two columns and this forces the reading of the text into a similar two and fro movement. This directionality embodies not only the emotional to and fro but tense of implicit conflict that exists between the couple.

variants are

- speech units with their individual peculiarities

- found in concrete texts

3. Forms of communication and language types

2/ verbal:

- oral

- written

varieties of language – spoken and written

spoken	written
- presence of an interlocutor - in the form of dialogue - spontaneous - human voice and gestures - morphological forms: he’s, she’s, they’ve - colloquial vocabulary: to be gone on smb - intensifying words: I’d sure like to see you - elliptical sentences: Never (I’ll never do it) - fill-ups or mumbling words: so to speak, you see, er-r	- absence of an interlocutor - in the form of a monologue - exact - explanatory - careful organisation - deliberate choice of words and constructions

4. The notion of style

Style = Greek: “ a tool used for writing on waxed tables”

style in architecture, art, work, life, fashion

The concept of language style presents specific problems. There are numerous definitions of style:

- Style is proper words in proper places (J. Swift)

- Style is the art of speaking and writing clearly, correctly and with ease and grace (Chesterfield)

- Style is the choice and disposition of words (Young)

- Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation (Enkvist)

- Style is an emphasis (expressive, affective or aesthetic) added to the information conveyed by the linguistic structure (Riffaterre)

language style = the use of language media under specific circumstances for a specific purpose

Two more notions of style are individual style and idiolect.

idiolect

- the speech characterised by peculiarities typical of a particular individual;

- habitual idiosyncrasies;

- a person’s particular way of speaking;

- different from others;

- reveal person’s age, background, education, professional standing, etc.

individual style

- peculiarities of a writer’s individual manner of using language means;

- deliberate choice of language media to achieve a desirable effect

style of E. Hemingway - 'flat', 'dry', 'restrained', 'journalistic’, 'tough guy’, 'macho'

individual style

- verbal inventiveness

- clever manipulation of the elements of literary language

Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin, my soul. Lo-lee-ta: the tip of the tongue taking a trip of three steps down the palate to tap, at three, on the teeth. Lo. Lee. Ta. (V. Nabokov)

contextually predetermined

5. The notion of context

context

- is the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event, situation, etc. (Maltzev)

- is the surroundings of the language unit in which its properties are being realized or displayed (Morokhovsky)

- cuts off all meanings irrelevant for the given situation

- foregrounds some denotative or connotative components of the semantic structure

types

- microcontext (of an utterance size),

- macrocontext (i.e. a paragraph or dialogical unity)

- megacontext (a chapter, several chapters or the whole work)

- temporal or chronological context. Historical accounts are more easily understood when evoked in the context of their own time.

- socio-historical context

- extralingual (situational) context

is formed by extralingual con­ditions in which communication takes place. Besides making the meaning of words well-defined, a situational context allows the speaker to economize on speech efforts and to avoid situationally redundant language signs. The com­mands of a surgeon in an operating room, such as "scalpel", "pincers" or "tampon", are understood by his assistants correctly and without any addi­tional explanations about what kind of tampon is needed.

- linguistic context

is the encirclement of a language unit by other language units in speech. Such encir­clement makes the meaning of the unit clear and unambiguous. It is especially important in case with polysemantic words. E.g.:

1. I never saw a larger cat, nor a more disreputable-looking cat. It had lost half its tail, one of its ears, and a fairly appreciable proportion of its nose. It was a long, sinewy-looking animal. It had a calm, contented air about it. ( J.K. Jerome Three Men in a Boat)

Disreputable = 1. ганебний, такий, що має сумнівну репутацію; 2.обшарпаний, зношений, розідраний

“такого великого і відчайдушного кота я ще ніколи не зустрічав.”

2. The order of the procession was as follows:

Montmorency, carrying a stick.

Two disreputable-looking curs, friends of Montmorency’s.

George, carrying coats and rugs and smoking a short pipe.

Два непривабливих на вигляд собаки, приятелі Монтморенсі.

- stylistic context - M.Riffaterre

- a pattern broken by an unpredictable element

- a change of the usual distribution of the language unit

(1) We are faced with the host of the cottage.

(2) We are faced with a host of difficulties.

6. The notion of foregrounding

Prague Linguistic Circle

Foregrounding

- the ability of a verbal element to obtain extra significance;

- involves a stylistic distortion of some sort;

Shklovsky's Russian term otsranenie, a method of 'defamiliarisation' in textual composition.

- a technique for 'making strange' in language

When I was a young man - two wives ago, 250,000 cigarettes ago, 3,000 quarts of booze ago.

Foregrounding refers to a form of textual patterning which is motivated specifically for literary-aesthetic purposes. Capable of working at any level of language, foregrounding typically involves a stylistic distortion of some sort

7. The notion of EM and SD

EM =

- phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactical forms which exist in the language-as-a-system for the purpose of intensification of the utterance (I.Galperin)

- marked members of stylistic oppositions, which have their invariant meaning in language (Morokhovsky)

“ A red-head Velma was. Cute she was.” Velma was red-head. She was cute.

We buddy-buddied together.

SD =

- an intentional change of a fixed (usual) distribution of language units in speech.

- a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit

- formed in speech thanks to linear, syntagmatic relations between speech units in a text:

In Arthur Calgary's fatigued brain the word seemed to dance on the wall. Money! Money! Money! (A. Christie)

convergence (M.Riffaterre) = an accumulation ('a bundle') of SDs that perform the same stylistic function

We went over to the bar. The customers, by ones and twos and threes, became quiet shadows that drifted soundless across the floor, soundless through the doors at the head of the stairs. Soundless as shadows on grass. They didn’t even let the doors swing. (R. Chandler)

8. The notion of image

image =

- a certain picture of the objective world

- a verbal subjective description of a person, event, etc.

YOU'RE A PIG

His smile was as stiff as a frozen fish. His long fingers made movements like dying butterflies. (R. Stout)

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