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Lecture 1

According to communication approach translation is a message sent by a translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation depends on similarity of their background information rather than only on linguistic correctness.

According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just mere substitution but consists of the following mental operations 1) translator reads (hears) a message in the source language, 2) translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message, 3) translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above denotatum and concept. This approach treats different languages as closed systems with specific relationship between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the process of translation links between the forms of different languages are established via conceptual equivalence.

The human translation theories may be divided into three main groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational approach, denotative approach and communication approach. According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of the target one. It is a set of multi-level transformations of a text in one language into a text in another governed by transformation rules. Transformation in translation is any replacement of a source language unit by its equivalent in the target one. The transformational approach suggests that in any language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological, and word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies in another language during translation. (Komissarov, Retsker, Catford and others.)

A Survey of American Geography

The United States of America is one of the largest countries in the world. It is a very powerful and highly developed country. The USA is situated in central North America, with Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The two newest states, Alaska and Hawaii, are separated from the continental United States. Alaska borders on north-western Canada, and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific Ocean.

The country is very large and has many kinds of land, climate and people. It stretches 2,575 kilometres from north to south and 4,500 kilometres from east to west. The USA is a varied land of forest deserts, mountains, high flat lands and fertile plains. Almost every kind of climate may be found but the country lies mostly in the temperate zone. In mountain forests of the north-west coast are watered with more than 250 centimetres of rain each year. But the deserts of the south-west receive less than 13 centimetres annually. A traveller can find parts of the United States that remind him of home. There are pine forests and mountain peaks, meadows and sea cliffs, wide grassy plains and sandy beaches.

The total area of the USA is 9,372,614 square kilometres. Alaska is the largest of America’s 50 states, with a land mass of 1,477,887 square kilometres. It is nearly 400 times the size of Rhode Island, which is the smallest size.

The population of he USA is over 260 million people. Despite its size, only approximately 525,000 people live in Alaska.

A flight from New York to San Francisco takes five and a half hours. Airlines serve 834 cities throughout the country. A coast-to-coast trip by train takes five to six days.

The USA is also a land of beautiful rivers and lakes. The state Minnesota, for example, is known as the land of 10,000 lakes.

The Mississippi is one of the world’s greatest rivers, like the Amazon in the South America, the Congo in Africa, the Volga in Europe. Together with the Missouri (its chief western branch), the Mississippi flows some 6,400 kilometres from its northern sources in the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi has been called the “father of waters”.

All the rivers east of the Rockies finally reach the Atlantic; all the waters to the west of the Rockies finally arrive the Pacific. The two great rivers of the Pacific side are the Colorado in the south and the Columbia, which rises in Canada and drains the north. Both rivers, very different in character, are vital sources of life. The Colorado is a river of enormous fury; it is wild, restless and angry. It races, cutting deeply into the desert rocks. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River is cut 1.6 kilometres in depth. All the farms and cities of the south-western corners of the country depend on its waters. The Rio Grand, about 3,200 kilometres long, is the foremost river of the South-west. It forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States, which together have built irrigation and flood-control projects.

The largest lakes of the USA (Lake Superior, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario) lie on the border with Canada. One of the world’s wonders, the Niagara Falls, is on the Niagara River, which empties the water of Erie into Ontario.

The Appalachians are old mountains which are covered by forest from their base to the rounded tops. The Rocky Mountains, which run from New Mexico to Alaska, are called the “backbone” of America. The Series of western ranges, paralleling the Pacific coast, the Sierra Nevada (California), the Cascade Range, the Coast Range. Between the Rockies and the Sierra, Nevada-Cascade Mountains lies the Great Basin, a group of vast plateaus with deserts and deep canyons in the south.

The Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains catch most of the rain off the Pacific Ocean. As a result, there is too little rain in the western par of the country. Farmers must depend on water from irrigation.

The 50centimeter rainfall line runs north and south almost through the middle of the country. East of the line farming is easy, and the population is relatively large. West of the line, one finds dry farming, grazing and fewer people.

The greatest wonder in the state of California is the forests of sequoia, they are over 3,000 years old and the oldest living things ever known.

The capital of the USA is Washington, D.C. Among other big cities are New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Chicago.

Many non-Americans may be aware of the geographical size of the USA. But it is harder to imagine the enormous amount of variety the exists within the nation. Often students assume a cultural and political homogeneity that simply does not exist in the USA. That is why simple questions about the United States cannot be answered shortly and simply. It is not possible to explain in a few words how old Americans have to be to drive a car or how much income tax they have to pay. New York City residents, for example, must pay federal state and city income taxes, while those lucky inhabitants of Colorado, New Hampshire, only pay federal income tax.

While European tourists are so often surprised by how big America really is, most Americans take the size and variety of their country for granted. They don’t find it exceptional to be able to speak the same, common language along the way. They don’t have stickers on their cars which say USA: which else would it be?

 

 

LECTURE 2

American History

Discovery. “In 1492 Columbus Sailed the Ocean Blue”. This is a little rhyme many American children learn to remember the date that Christopher Columbus “discovered” America. This is a famous joke about Columbus. It has been told over and over again, by this professional historian, or by that recent visitor who, hearing it for the first time, thinks it’s new. However, it’s an old story to the first Americans, the Indians:

Christopher Columbus didn’t really know where he was going

(but he was sure it wouldn’t be America)

Christopher didn’t really know where he was when he got there

(but he was sure that it wasn’t America)

Chris didn’t really know where he’d been when he got home again

(but he took back some Indians back with him, to prove that he sure hadn’t been to America).

Was Ch. Columbus truly the first person to discover the continent and return home to tell about it. Probably not, but he was the first to return to Europe and tell all about what he believed to be a new route to Asia.

America wasn’t discovered by Ch. Columbus. In fact, Columbus and his men were not even the second explorers to reach America. They were the third. By 1000 A.D. the Viking explorers from Scandinavian had bravely explored the dangerous North Atlantic. They travelled from Iceland to Greenland, and finally to Labrador and Newfoundland. But at that time European countries did not yet have enough wealth or knowledge to follow the Viking. Soon the Viking returned to Scandinavia, and America waited until 1492 for the ships of Columbus.

Columbus arrived in America by accident. When he sailed west from Spain, he was hoping to discover water route to the Orient. He never dreamed that two huge continents stood in this way. In fact, even when he reached America, he mistakenly thought that he was in India. So he called people who greeted him Indians. The name has been frequently used since that time.

These Native Americans, of course, were not Indians. They were descendants (later family generations) of the first people who discovered America. Their ancestors (previous family generations) had been on the American continents for thousands of years. Their story is the story of the America’s first explorers.

The Colonies. European people came to the New World for many reasons. Some, like Columbus, came looking for new trade routes, others were seeking fortune, many were missionaries who wanted to covert the Native Americans, however many of them were even convicts.

The most well-known first settlers were the Pilgrims. The Pilgrims came, seeking religious freedom. They founded the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts in 1620. The Pilgrim originated in England, but they were persecuted for their religious beliefs and moved to Holland. After living in Holland for ten years, they set sail on the Mayflower for the New World, hoping for a new life.

The trip across the ocean was tough and terribly unpleasant. There was sickness and death. They had little food and fresh water, and many never lived to seee this new land. They arrived in the winter of 1620, in the north-east of America, a harsh time to arrive to unsettled land. Nevertheless, they worked hard and in spring they hunted, fished and planted crops. That first harvest in summer and autumn was good to the Pilgrims, and they wanted to give thanks to God for seeing them safely through their journey.

The Pilgrims learned from the Native Americans how to live in this New World.

The Native Americans had a ceremony thanking nature for the food they received from the harvest. The Pilgrims decided to hold their own feast, Thanksgiving, which lasted for three days. Today Americans continue to celebrate this holiday with their family and friends, thanking God for all they are given.

There were also other religious groups who sought the New World, such as the Quakers, who founded the colony Pennsylvania. Other groups consisted of the Shakers, known for their beautiful wood work, and the Irish Catholics who settled in the colony of Maryland.

The American Revolution. In 1693 Great Britain defeated France in the French and Indian War but was left nearly bankrupt. They only way to fill the treasury was to raise money by taxes.

The British placed taxes on such goods as molasses, tea, glass and paint. They also passed a Stamp Act. This was a special tax in the form of a stamp which had to be placed on newspapers and legal papers. The colonists protested so strongly against this tax that Britain finally dropped it. The issue of taxation for the colonists was that they felt that, since they had no representatives in British Parliament, it was unfair to tax them. This began to be known as “taxation without representation”.

Then many disputes led to bad feelings on both sides. Colonists formed an organisation called the Sons of Liberty. It led protests against the British. The British government then sent soldiers to enforce its laws.

In 1770 some colonists clashed with British troops in Boston Street. In the excitement, the soldiers fires into the crowd. Five people were killed. The Shooting came to be known by the colonists as the Boston Massacre.

Colonial leaders such as Samuel Adams, his cousin John Adams, who would later become the second president of the United States, George Washington, who would later become the first president of the US, and Benjamin Franklin organised a stronger protest against British rule. Britain dropped most of the taxes but kept the one on tea. Some merchants smuggled in tea to avoid paying the tax.

When, in 1773, Parliament granted the powerful East India Tea Company a monopoly on selling tea at a lower price, some merchants feared that they would lose the profits they made by smuggling tea. Late in December 1773, a number of the colonists took action. Disguised as Native Americans and led by Samuel Adams, they boarded a British ship and dumped the cargo of tea into the harbour. The colonists were afraid that people would buy the cheaper tea, which would symbolise the power the British government had on the colonies. The incident was called “the Boston Tea Party” and its story spread to all the colonies. Britain was angry and decided to punish the entire city of Boston by closing the port to ships. The Boston Tea Party proved to be one of the events that started the Revolution in 1775. The British troops marched out of Boston hoping to surprise the colonies, who had stored weapons near the city. Fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord, two villages near Boston. These battles on the 19th of April 1775 marked the start of the American Revolution. A month later American colonists occupied the hills around Boston. The British sent more than two thousand soldiers, who held the hills. The result was the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775. The British troops seized the hills but suffered terrible losses. George Washington took command of the colonial army for the rest of the Revolution. At the start it numbered 15,000 troops.

Many people in Britain and in the colonies did not want war. Colonial leaders sent a petition to King George III of Britain. The King was asked to unite Great Britain and the colonies in a peaceful way. But the King refused to read the petition. He declared that the colonial protests were rebels. On July 4. 1776, the Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. It’s most important part says:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that are endowed by the Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuits of happiness”.

So, in 1776 the thirteen weak British colonies in America came together, stood up and told what was then the world’s greatest power that from now on they would be free and independent states. The British were neither impressed nor amused, and a bitter six-year war followed, the Revolutionary War (1776 – 1783). It’s hard to appreciate today, over two centuries later, what a revolutionary act this was. A new republic was founded, turning into reality the dreams and ideals of a new political philosophers. Americans broke with an age-old tradition, and so sent shock waves back across the ocean. They decided that it was their right to choose their own form of government. At that time the statement that governments should receive their powers only “from the consent of the governed” was radical indeed.

Something new was under the sun: the system of government, in Lincoln’s words, “of the people, by the people, for the people”.

 

LECTURE 3

The Political System of the United States

The Constitution and the Bill of Rights. The first government of the US was established under the Articles of Confederation. These were created in 1781 to be a set of laws governing the different states, but it was soon understood that the federal, or national, government was too weak in this system, and the states too strong. Therefore, in 1787, delegates from the states met in Philadelphia to revise the articles and draft a new document, the Constitution. Officially adopted by the states in 1790, it created the three branches of government that can be seen in the US today. These three branches of government: executive (the President), legislative (the Congress), and judicial (the Supreme Court), have a system of “checks and balances”, meaning that no one branch is more powerful than the others. The Constitution is called “the supreme law of the land”, which means that all parts of the government, government agencies, state and local governments and citizens of the US must follow its laws. As a result, the president, the Congress, or an individual state are not the most powerful entity n the United States; power rests with all “the people”. It belongs to “We the People” in fact and in spirit.

In this way, Americans first took for themselves the liberties and rights that elsewhere were the privileges of an elite few. Americans would manage their own affairs in their own interests. They would elect their own representatives and make their own laws. And, of course, they would make their own mistakes.

They started in the first ten Constitutional Amendments, known together as the Bill of Rights, they considered to be the fundamental rights of any American. Among these rights are the freedom of religion, speech and press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs. It also protects them against abuses of power and invasions of privacy, so that the government cannot take property of imprison any American without cause to do so. These rights are seen as “inalienable”, the natural rights of any American that cannot be taken away from them for any reason.

The Constitution can be looked upon as a “living” document, because it may be amended (as it was the addition of the Bill of Rights) as the world changes. This is one of the main reasons that the Constitution is the oldest still in force, just recently celebrating its 200th birthday.

 

Legislative Branch. The legislative branch is made of elected representatives from all the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws, levy federal taxes, declare war, or put foreign treaties into effect. It consists of a Congress that is divided into two groups, called houses. The House of Representatives and the Senate.

The House of Representatives made up of 435 members, who each two-year terms. Each House member represents a district of his or her state. The number of districts in a state is determined by a count of the population taken every ten years. The states with larger populations therefore have more house members representing it. California, having the largest population, has 45 representatives, while Delaware has only one.

The Senate is made up of 100 members who each serve six-year terms. Each state, regardless of its population, has two senators. Therefore, each state has an equal voice in one house of Congress.

The main duty of Congress is to make laws. A law begins as a proposal called a “bill”. The bill is read, discussed, and amended in the Senate or House Chamber in which it was introduced. It is then voted upon. If the bill passes in one side of Congress, it is sent to the other side of Congress, where a similar procedure occurs. Members of both houses work together on the same bill. When both houses of Congress pass a bill on which they agree it is sent to the president for his signature. Only after it is signed does a bill become a law.

Congress also regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries and decided how money is spent.

 

The Executive Branch The executive branch is headed by the President of the US, who is elected, together with a vice president, for a four-year term.

Since 1951, after a constitutional amendment, a president can only be elected for two terms (eight years total). The president is elected directly by the voters, through state electors.

The powers of the president are great, but not without limitations. Most of the acts of the president are balanced by the power of Congress. For example, since one of the presidents duties is to form public, domestic and foreign policy, he must often propose legislation to Congress. All policies must be approved by both houses before they can become a law. This means he must convince congressmen of his point of view. In return, the president may veto (forbid) any bill passed by Congress. The bill may still become law, but after being vetoed by the president the sill is returned to Congress. Congress must vote on the bill again and agree by a two-thirds vote, the bill becomes the law whether the president sign it or not.

The president also has the authority to appoint federal judges as vacancies occur, including members of the Supreme Court. All such court appointments are subject to confirmation by the Senate.

The president also appoints the heads and senior officials of the executive branch agencies. Currently, there are the departments of State, Treasury, Defence, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy and Education. These appointments must also be approved by the Senate. None of these heads (often called secretaries) can be serving in Congress or in another part of the government. Each is directly responsible to the president and only serves as the president wants him or her to. They can best be seen, therefore, as presidential assistants and advisors. When they meet together, they are termed the president’s “cabinet”. Some presidents have relied quite a bit on their cabinets for advice, and some very little.

Under the Constitution the president is primarily responsible for foreign relations with other nations. The president appoints ambassadors and other officials, subject to Senate approval and with the secretary of state, formulates and manages the nation’s foreign policy. The president often represents the US in consultations with other heads of states and through his officials he negotiates treaties with other countries. Such treaties must be approved by a two-third vote of the Senate.

 

The Judicial Branch. The head of the judicial branch is the Supreme Court. It is the only court that was created by the Constitution; in fact, often it’s job is to determine if laws and acts are “unconstitutional” or not. In addition to the Supreme Court there are 11 federal courts of appeal and, below them, 91 district courts.

The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. They are nominated by the President but must be approved by the Senate. Federal judges are appointed for life or until voluntary retirement and they can only be removed from office through the process of impeachment and trial in the Congress. With minor exceptions all the cases reach the Court on appeal from lower federal or state courts. An appeal is when, after a decision has been made by a court, the plaintiff appeals to a higher court for a new trial. If there is just cause, a case may be taken from one court to a higher one then on to a higher one.

The highest, of course, is the Supreme Court. It is uncommon for cases to reach this level, and they generally involve disputes over the interpretation of laws and legislation. In this capacity, the Court’s most important function consists of determining whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.

A decision of the Supreme Court is final: neither the president nor Congress can change it.

Other cases heard by federal courts involve foreign citizens or governments and cases in which the federal government itself is a party.

 

Administrative System of the States. Government in the US can be divided into levels and branches. The different levels of the government consist of the federal government, 50 state governments, and countless local and regional governments. In the Constitution, different responsibilities are given to each of government.

The federal government is responsible for foreign policy, foreign trade, the infrastructure (the system of railroads, and interstate highways that criss-cross the US) and federal government spending on social programs. In contrast, the states have their own state government and control their state educational systems, their police forces, and state taxes. The federal government and other states cannot interfere in state concerns, like education and taxation, but the state must follow all federal laws. Local governments are given power over spending in local schools (with the help of the state government) and provide public services for their communities (cleaning streets, garbage collection, etc.).

As with the federal level of government, the state level of government is divided into the executive, legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch is headed by the governor of each state. Therefore, there are 50 state governors in the USA. The responsibility of the officials is to execute the laws. The laws, themselves, though, are made by the legislative, branch, which consists of 50 state congresses. In all, but the state of Nebraska, these congresses are broken up into the House of Representatives and the Senate (Nebraska only has one “Congress”). Each state has a state Supreme Court that can decide legal matters within the state. There are also lower courts both federal and state which decide if the defendant (the person accused of a crime) is guilty or innocent. So, the different parts of the governments are able to do the different job of governing the US.

 

 

LECTURE 4

The Educational System of the USA

History

The US has a strong tradition of education. Many of its original settlers were educated men. The first American college was Harvard, which was founded in 1636 by the graduates of Cambridge University. Later, in 1693, the college of William and Mary was founded in Williamsburg, Virginia, with Yale soon following in 1701. By 1776 there were nine colleges in the colonies, including Princeton (New Jersey), Pennsylvania, Columbia (New York), Brown (Rhode Island), Rutgers (New Jersey) and Dartmouth (New Hampshire). These universities are among the most respected in the country today.

Education was not only valued at a higher level, but for school children as well. From the 1640s Massachusetts requires all towns to provide a school master in towns with fifty or more families. Many other colonies also provided free education.

As more and more people moved out to the west, it was ruled by 1785 that one square mile in each township be reserved for a public school. By 1850 every state had provided a system of free public schools open to all and paid for public taxes.

 

Control of Education

The problem with explaining the USA school system is that each shool varies from town to town, city to city and state to state. This is because education is controlled at a local level.

The USA does not have a national system of education. To understand the USA school system better, keep in mind the saying “education is a national concern, a state responsibility and a local function”. Since the nation is concerned with education, the USA has a Federal Department of Education, but its purpose is to gather information and to advise and not to control. Each state decides its own system of education, setting basic minimal requirements for teaching and teachers. The administrative control, such as what books will be used is decided on a local level. The communities of America cities and towns have school boards which decide what will be taught.

 

Elementary and Secondary Education

As it was previously mentioned, every school in the US is different, since every community has different requirements, but we can still find some basic similarities.

Basically there are five different parts of the American school system: nursery school, kindergarten and elementary (often in the same building), and secondary (junior high school and high school).

Most students start by the age of five, in kindergarten, although some start as early as three or four in nursery schools. Some students attend elementary school from kindergarten to sixth grade, secondary school (junior high school) from seventh to ninth grade and then high school from ninth to twelfth. Others go to elementary school from kindergarten to eight grade and then go straight to high school from ninth to twelfth. It depends entirely on the individual student and what the school system in his town offers.

Generally speaking, students graduate from school at the age of eighteen after they have completed the twelfth grade. However, for most states it is only compulsory to attend school until the age of 16, no matter what grade you have completed.

A student with his or her family can decide at any time to attend a public or private school. Most students attend public schools, but there are a variety of private schools available. Some private schools are religious organisations such as a church. Other private schools have no religious ties and are simply private. There are also boarding schools where students go away to school.

Nearly every state has the same basic requirements of Math, History, English, Science, foreign languages, social studies, Music, Art, Computers and physical education. Students have the most choice in their electives. Most students have an elective every year where students may choose either to advance in science and Math or in Art or Music, whatever interests them.

Of course, not all students are equal. Students, who have done poorly in school and have failed a class must retake the class during the school year, or in summer school. They are not dismissed. “Summer school” is available for industrious students who want to advance in their classes.

Many schools, especially those in big cities with large immigrant populations, have bilingual programs for students who are learning English as a second language.

 

Higher Education

Nearly one million high school seniors go on to pursue “higher education” every year. It is complicated to explain exactly what higher education consists of in the US. Basically it consists of four parts.

The first category is the one with which most European students are familiar, the university. A university consists of several colleges for undergraduate students pursuing a four-year bachelor degree. It also has graduate schools for students who have already received a Bachelor’s degree and who want to continue their education to earn a Master’s or Doctoral degree.

The second institution is a college, a term which many people use interchangeably with “university”. This is because every student who receives a degree at a university received it from one of the colleges of which their university is comprised. For example, a student can earn a degree from St. Vincent’s College at St. John’s University. However, there are many colleges which are independent and are not a part of a larger university.

The third choice is a community, or a junior college. This is a two-year degree program whereby students can earn an Associate’s degree. After completing their degree, graduates may either go on to a four-year college or enter any professions.

Finally, there is what is called a “technical school”. This category is very diverse. High school graduates may enter a wide variety of technical schools which range from six months to four years in many fields such as bookkeeping, data processing or beauty school. All these institutions may be either public or private.

Even though there are over 3,300 accredited colleges and universities in the USA to which any high school graduate may apply, being accepted to the college of your choice is a high competitive process. Students are generally accepted on the basis of their high school marks, SAT scores (Standard Admissions Test), recommendations from their high school teachers, their application essay, and how well they present themselves at their college interview.

There are traditionally three four-year degrees a student may earn:

- a Bachelor of Arts (BA);

- a Bachelor of Science (BC);

- a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA).

A Bachelor of Arts is a degree in subjects such as history, languages, and philosophy. A Bachelor of Science is a degree i science such as chemistry and physics. A Bachelor of Fine Arts is an the creative fields such as sculpture and painting.

To earn s degree, colleges and universities require that a student receives a certain amount of credits, generally 130. Credits represent each hour a student is in class for the course. Most courses are three credits, so they meet for three hours a week. Students take between 12 and 18 credits a semester. Students are required to declare a major and one minor as well.

A major is the field of study in which a student earns his degree, and minor is a secondary field of study a student pursues. Every major has different requirements; for example, a degree in English literature at one school may require 36 semester hours (credits) in total. Most minors are half that (18 credits). Schools also have basic requirements in history, English, speech, foreign languages and a variety of other subjects. There are also many electives in higher education. This may enable a student to earn a second minor by using their elective credits in another field. Some science and Math fields have different requirements of credits and electives; every degree is different. After students have completed all their required credits, they have earned their degree and they graduate.

After graduation students can either enter the work force or continue their education and pursue graduate degrees.

 

LECTURE 5

Holidays in the United States

People in each culture celebrate Holidays. Although the word “holiday” literally means “holy day”, most American holidays are not religious, but commemorative in nature and origin.

In the strict sense, there are no national holidays in the US. Each of the 50 states establishes its own legal holidays. The federal government, through the president and Congress, can legally set holidays only for federal employees and for the District of Columbia. Most states, however, accept the federal legal government offices, and many (but not all) businesses are:

New Year’s Day (January 1);

Martin Luther King’s Birthday (3rd Monday in January);

Washington’s Birthday, sometimes called “Presidents’ Day” (3rd Monday in May);

Independence Day (July 4th);

Labour Day (1st Monday in September);

Columbus Day (2hd Monday in October);

Veteran’s Day (November 11th);

Thanksgiving Day (4th Thursday in November);

Christmas Day (December 25th).

When New Year’s Day, Independence Day, or Christmas falls on a Sunday, the next day is also a holiday. When one of these holidays falls on a Saturday, the previous day is also a holiday. Federal government offices, including the post office are always closed on all federal legal holidays, whereas schools and businesses close on major holidays like Independence Day and Christmas but may not always be closed for example, on George Washington’s Birthday or Veteran’s Day.

Most state have holidays which are “observed” but are not necessary “legal”. The name of the holiday (e.g. Confederate Memorial Day) goes on the calendar (last Monday in April) for a state (Alabama, Mississippi), yet does not mean that businesses are always closed or children let out of school. There are also special days in most states (e.g. Volunteer Fireman Day, second Sunday in January in New Jersey) which are proclaimed, but have no effect otherwise. This is also true at the National Level. The President or Congress might proclaim a special day or week (e.g. National Employ and Handicapped Week, first week in October) in order to bring attention to a certain concern, interest group, or problem.

The many religious holidays such as Good Friday, Hanukkah or Ramadan are observed, of course, by legal status. Rather, each state states its own laws, and whether or not an employee is given time off also depends on labour agreement.

There are many traditional holidays, observed by a large number of Americans, which are also neither legal nor official. Among these are Grounding Day/ Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day (not just people with Irish ancestry will ”wear the green” on March 17), mother’s Day and Halloween (the last day of October).

The three holidays which were first observed in the USA but have now spread elsewhere are Labour Day (usually observed on March 1 elsewhere), Thanksgiving (in Canada), and Mother’s Day (wherever there are florists, greeting-card companies, candy manufacturers, and others).

Perhaps the two “most American” of the holidays are the Fourth of July – Independence Day – and Thanksgiving. The Fourth of July is like a big nation-wide birthday party. Yet, it’s a party that takes place in neighbourhoods, on beaches in parks, or on suburban lawns throughout the country. Some towns and cities have parades with bands and flags, and most politicians will try to give a patriotic speech or two, should anyone be willing to listen. But what makes the fourth of July is the atmosphere and enjoyment of, for instance, the family beach party, with hot dogs and hamburgers, volleyball, the fireworks and rackets at night (and, often, a sunburn and a headache the next morning). The nation’s birthday is also the nation’s greatest annual summer party.

Like Christmas, Thanksgiving is a day for families to come together. Traditional foods are prepared for the feast – turkey or ham, cranberry sauce and corn dishes, breads and rolls, and pumpkin pie. At the same time, Thanksgiving is a solemn occasion, a day to remember the many who are less well off, in America and throughout the world.

Typical American?

Few of us like to be told that we are average, and Americans are no exceptions. Far worse, however, is to be told that we, or the things we do, are typical of our nation. “Oh, that’s so typically (or British, or French … etc)” is the kind of a statement most of us object to. Generalisations about nationalities (Americans are incurable optimists, Germans are professional pessimists, and Italians are amused by both) are usually not welcome, even when they’re basically accurate.

With Americans this reaction may even go deeper. One generalisation often made about Americans is that they value their individualism quite highly. They place great emphasis on their individual differences, on having a great number of choices and on doing things their own way. This is perhaps why general statements about American lifestyles are frequently resented by Americans. Part of being an American is not being and not wanting to be, typical.

The other difficulties with summarising American ways of life and attitudes. Whereas, for example, Italians or Germans form a largely homogeneous society, white, Christian, and speaking one language, Americans do not. And whereas a country like Britain exhibits considerable variation in climate and landscape, the differences across the continental US are extreme.

Largely since the Second World War, more and more American social and cultural habits have taken hold in Europe, from conflakes and televised news for breakfast to the evening barbecue or grill party.

In the early 60s, for instance, it was still possible for an American to quip that “in the US, we take a shower every day and go food shopping once a week – in Europe, they do it the other way around”. Today, of course, this is no longer the case. American habits have not changed that much, but European ones have, along with the increase of supermarkets and shoppingcenters, the number of cars, and the modernisation of housing. Such concerns are now as familiar to most Europeans as are, well, traffic jams and beer cans, pollution control or “walkman” radios.

For their part Americans are now buying smaller cars, and waking more. More and more of them are cooking “from scratch” instead of using prepared foods. Yet overall, trends in lifestyles have moved and still move across the Atlantic from west to east. Another generalisation, this one European, says it well “What they are doing in California today, we’ll probably be doing in Europe tomorrow”.

As a result, there are at least two generalisations that can be safely made. First, Americans tend to be trend-setters in lifestyles. And secondly, what is thought to be typically American today probably won’t be so far long. Most interesting, therefore, are those habits and attitudes, customs and conventions which have been consistently observed among Americans over time.

 

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