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Сверхпроводимости




Сверхпроводимости и о тех ученых, которые внесли свой вклад в исследование

Прочитайте текст. Расскажите об основных этапах развития

Superconductivity

According to the prominent scientist in this country V.L. Ginzburg

the latest world achievements in the field of superconductivity

mean a revolution in technology and industry. Recent spectacular

breakthroughs^ in superconductors may be compared with the

physics discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. They

are likely to bring the mankind to the threshold of a new technological

age. Prestige, economic and military benefits could well come

to the nation that first will master this new field of physics. Superconductors

were once thought to be physically impossible. But in

1911 superconductivity was discovered by a Dutch physicist

K. Onnes, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his lowtemperature

research. He found the electrical resistivity of a mercury

wire to disappear suddenly when cooled below a temperature

of 4 Kelvin (-269 °C). Absolute zero is known to be 0 K. This discovery

was a completely unexpected phenomenon. He also discovered

that a superconducting material can be returned to the normal

state either by passing a sufficiently large current through it or by

applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field to it. But at that time

there was no theory to explain this.

For almost 50 years after K. Onnes' discovery theorists were

unable to develop a fundamental theory of superconductivity. In

1950 physicists Landau and Ginzburg made a great contribution to

the development of superconductivity theory. They introduced a

model which proved to be useful in understanding electromagnetic

properties of superconductors. Finally, in 1957 a satisfactory theory

was presented by American physicists, which won for them in

1972 the Nobel Prize in physics. Research in superconductors became

especially active since a discovery made in 1986 by IBM^ scientists

in Zurich. They found a metallic ceramic compound to

become a superconductor at a temperature well above^ the previously

achieved record of 23 K.

It was difficult to believe it. However, in 1987 American physicist

Paul Chu informed about a much more sensational discovery:

he and his colleagues produced superconductivity at an unbelievable

before temperature 98 К in a special ceramic material. At once

in all leading laboratories throughout the world superconductors of

critical temperature 100 К and higher (that is, above the boiling

temperature of liquid nitrogen) were obtained. Thus, potential

technical uses of high temperature superconductivity seemed to be

possible and practical. Scientists have found a ceramic material

that works at room temperature. But getting superconductors from

the laboratory into production will be no easy task. While the new

superconductors are easily made, their quality is often uneven.

Some tend to break when produced, others lose their superconductivity

within minutes or hours. All are extremely difficult to fabricate

into wires. Moreover, scientists lack a full understanding of

how ceramics become superconductors. This fact makes develop-

ing new substances largely a random process. This is likely to

continue until theorists give a fuller explanation of how superconductivity

is produced in new materials.

Notes to the Text

1. spectacular breakthroughs -- захватывающие открытия,

достижения (переворот)

2. IBM — компания Ай Би Эм

3. well above — намного выше

УПРАЖНЕНИЯ

Упражнение 10. Просмотрите текст НА и ответьте на вопросы.

1. What is this text about? 2. What is the phenomenon of superconductivity?

3. Who was the first to discover the phenomenon?

4. What scientists do you know who have worked in the field of superconductivity?

5. What materials are the best superconductors?

6. Is it possible to return superconducting materials to the normal

state? 7. How can it be done? 8. In what fields of science and technology

can the phenomenon of superconductivity be used?

Упражнение 11. Укажите, какие утверждения соответствуют содержанию

текста ПА. Исправьте неправильные утверждения.

1. The latest achievements in superconductivity mean a revolution

in technology and industry. 2. Superconductors were once

thought to be physically impossible. 3. The achievements in superconductivity

cannot be compared with the discoveries that led to

electronics and nuclear power. 4. The electrical resistivity of a mercury

wire disappears when cooled below 4 K. 5. A superconducting

material cannot be returned to the normal state. 6. Landau and

Ginzburg introduced a model which was useful in understanding

electromagnetic properties of superconductors. 7. Scientists from

IBM found a ceramic material that became a superconductor at a

temperature of 23 K. 8. Potential technical uses of high temperature

superconductivity are unlikely to be possible and practical.

Упражнение 12. Найдите в тексте НА инфинитивные конструкции.

Упражнение 13. Сравните пары предложений, переведите.

1. Designers report а new manned craft to be able to submerge to

the depth of 21,000 feet. A new manned craft is reported to be able

to submerge to the depth of 21,000 feet. 2. We know radio navigation

stations to be located at different places around the world to guide

the pilots. Radio navigation stations are known to be located all over

the world to guide the pilots. 3. People considered dirigibles to be

too slow and unreliable, that is why they were not used for a long

time. Dirigibles were considered to be slow and unreliable. 4. Experts

expect the new submersible craft to move round the ocean

floor like a sports car. The new submersible craft is expected to

move round the ocean floor like a sports car. 5. Scientists in many

countries consider propeller engines to be much more economical.

Propeller engines are considered to be much more economical.

6. We know propeller planes to fly slower than jet planes, therefore,

a new ventilator engine with a propeller has been built. But as propeller

planes are known to fly slower than jet planes a new ventilator

engine with a propeller has been built.

Упражнение 14. Найдите предложения со сложным подлежащим, переведите.

1. The phenomenon of superconductivity appears to have been

discovered as early as 1911. 2. Before 1911 superconductivity was assumed

to be impossible. 3. Recent discoveries in superconductivity

made scientists look for new conducting materials and for practical

applications of the phenomenon. 4. The latest achievements in the

field of superconductivity are certain to make a revolution in technology

and industry. 5. Recommendations from physicists will allow

the necessary measures to be taken to protect the air from

pollution. 6. Lasers are sure to do some jobs better and at much

lower cost than other devices. 7. M. Faraday supposed a light beam

to reverse its polarisation as it passed through a magnetised crystal.

8. Superconductors are likely to find applications we don't even

think of at present. 9. A Dutch physicist found a superconducting

material to return to normal state when a strong magnetic field was

applied. 10. Properties of materials obtained in space prove to be

much better than those produced on Earth. 11. There are prospects

for lasers to be used in long distance communication and for transmission

of energy to space stations. 12. The electrical resistivity of a

mercury wire was found to disappear when cooled to —269 °C.

13. Additional radio transmitters let the pilot make his approach to

an aiфort by watching his flight instruments. 14. There seems to be

a lot of alloys and compounds that become superconductors under

certain conditions.

УПРАЖНЕНИЯ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ

Упражненве 15. Определите, к какой части речи относятся слова.

resistant, resist, resistance, resistor, resistivity; superconductivity,

superconductive, superconductor, superconducting; theory,

theorist, theoretical, theorize; physics, physicist, physical, physically;

explain, explainable, explanation; store, storage, storable.

Упражнение 16. Найдите русскому слову соответствующее английское.

достижение — achievable, achievement, achieve;

электронный — electronics, electronic, electron;

легче — easily, easy, easier;

удовлетворять — satisfy, satisfactory, satisfaction;

действительно — reality, realise, really.

Упражнение 17. Переведите слова с суффиксом -ward (-wards), обозначающим

направление.

toward(s), forward(s), backward(s), afterward(s), downward(s),

outward(s), northward(s), southward(s), rearward(s), homeward(

s), sideward(s), windward(s), upward(s).

Упражнение 18. Найдите слова с нестандартным образованием множественного

числа.

There are а few words taken over from Latin and Greek that

still retain their original plurals in English. In some cases we can

use either. Formulas is seen more often than formulae. Antenna —

antennae (pi). Many think that media, strata and phenomena are

all singular. They aren't. Data, a plural, is used both ways.

Here are some foreign singular and plural forms of words often

used in English. Latin: medium (a means of mass communication)

— media, nucleus (ядро атома) — nuclei; Greek: analysis —

analyses; axis — axes; crisis — crises; hypothesis — hypotheses;

phenomenon — phenomena.

Упражнение 19. Найдите синонимы и антонимы,

below — above; useful — useless; easy — difficult; field —

sphere; to meet demands — to meet requirements (needs); full —

complete; to use — to apply; to get — to obtain; moreover — besides;

sufficient — enough; likely — unlikely; to continue — to discontinue;

conductivity — nonconductivity; to vary — to change; to

lead to — to result in; recent — latest; advantage — disadvantage;

low — high; believable — unbelievable; to lose — to find; tiny —

huge; liquid -- solid; unexpected expected; common — ordinary.

Упражнение 20. Запомните выделенные слова и словосочетания.

1. The climate in this part of the world is the most suitable for

people to live in. It is neither too hot, nor too cold. 2. Many lasers

give off invisible radiation either infrared or ultraviolet. 3. There is

the tropical zone on either side of the Equator. 4. It is possible to

divide all countries into classes: developed and developing countries.

Various criteria may be used to include a particular country in

either of the two categories. 5. The numbers are either odd or even.

6. Such satellites can contain either television cameras or photographic

equipment for transmitting pictures to Earth.

«I see you are not a scientific person, my friend».

«Why do you say that?»

«You do not take good care of your car. You have no water in

your radiator».

«I thought that I had plenty of water».

«You have no oil either. You will ruin your car if you run it

without oil».

«Have I plenty of water in the storage battery?»

«No, you haven't a drop».

«I haven't any air in my spare tire, either».

«Have you any extra tubes?»

«No, I haven't, but I have a good tube in the spare tire. I had

four new tubes when I met a man who was having tire trouble. He

hadn't an extra tube. I let him have my tubes. I suppose he was not

a scientific person either. His car was in a worse condition than

mine is.»

How Did It All Begin?

Do you ever wonder why people do or wear, or say certain

things? Why do they shake hands when they meet? Many things

you say and do could have reasons that date back thousands of

years.

For example, it is very strange to think that shaking hands — a

friendly custom (обычай) today — was originally a means of keeping

a stranger's (незнакомец) weapon hand where it could do no

harm.

In primitive times, man never went about without some weapon

of defence — usually a club (дубинка). Upon meeting a stranger a

man could either stand and fight or turn away before discovering if

the stranger was a friend or an enemy, or greet the stranger and

possibly become friends.

But how could he be sure the stranger would be friendly and

how could the stranger trust in return? There was only one way to

show friendly intentions and that was for both men to lay down

their weapons and hold out empty hands. For added insurance,

each would reach for the other's right hand. As long as both men's

hands were safely clasped, neither could harm the other. Therefore,

a handshake originally was a means of self-defence.

Упражнение 21. Дайте недостающие формы глаголов и запомните их.

teach, fighting, wore, frozen, letting, carried on, laid down.

Упражнение 22. Прочитайте и переведите текст без словаря.

The ancient Greeks are known to have been great watchers of

the sky and also great thinkers. As they watched the sky night after

night, it was natural for them to think that the Earth stood and the

stars, planets, sun and moon were moving round the earth in space.

They thought the sun to be between Venus and Mars. To explain

the movement of the planets, however, was very difficult. Then one

day a young scientist named Copernicus at Krakow University in

Poland supposed that the sun and not the Earth should be the

centre of everything. He was the first to explain properly our solar

system. The ancient Greeks had made the mistake of thinking that

because the stars and planets seemed to move as they looked at the

sky, the Earth must stand. If you sat in a train and looked out at the

trees, it would be easy to understand their mistake. The trees seem

to be moving backwards, but really it is the train that is moving forwards.

CONVERSATION

Exercise 1. Answer the questions.

1. What field of science studies the phenomenon of superconductivity?

(physics) 2. What can a nation have if it is the first to

master this new field of science? (prestige, scientific advantage,

economic and military benefits) 3. What is superconductivity? (the

loss of electrical resistivity by a material on being cooled to temper-

atures near absolute zero) 4. What is absolute zero? (0 Kelvin or

-273 °C) 5. What scientists worked in the field of superconductivity

research? (Dutch physicist K. Onnes, Russian physicists L. Landau

and V. Ginzburg, and a number of American scientists) 6. What

materials are the best super conductors? (ceramic materials)

7. What are the potential technical uses of superconductivity? (nuclear

research, power generation, electronics, etc.)

Exercise 2. Make a sentence out of the two parts.

1. Recent achievements in superconductivity

research are

2. They may be compared with

3. Superconductivity is known

to

4. While carrying out his low

temperature research he

5. For 50 years after the discovery

there was no

6. In the 1950s Russian and

American physicists made a great

contribution

7. Research in the field of superconductivity

became especially

active

1. fundamental theory to explain

this unexpected phenomenon.

2. found the electrical resistivity

of mercury to disappear when

cooled to the temperature of 4

Kelvin.

3. to the development of superconductivity

theory.

4. have been discovered by a

Dutch physicist.

5. of great importance for science

and technology.

6. since the discovery of a superconductive

metallic ceramics.

7. physics discoveries that led to

the development of electronics

and nuclear power.

Exercise 3. Read and learn.

Professor Brown: Hello, glad to meet you, prof. Smith, haven't seen

you for ages, since I left the University.

Prof. Smith: How do you do, prof. Brown, I haven't expected to

see you here. Are you interested in superconductivity

problems? By the way, how are you making your

living? I haven't heard anything about your work

lately. I spent the last two years in Geneva as a

member of a special UN committee.

Pr. В.: I am with Bell Telephone company. It is a global

leader in electrical engineering. And I deal with

new technologies.

Pr. S.: Oh, your work is so important nowadays. Mankind needs energy

for producing light, heat and transportation. This is the

basis of our civilization.

Pr. В.: Sure, that's so. And as the population grows, so does the demand

for better quality of life. Energy consumption increases

daily.

Pr. S.: But with it the threat to clean air, pure water and soil increases

too. These natural resources are not inexhaustible.

Pr. В.: Of course. We are developing new industrial systems to improve

productivity, reducing the amount of raw materials and

energy required. Our new advanced systems help to conserve

energy too.

Pr. S.: In Geneva one of the problems I studied was the problem to

generate, transmit and distribute energy with great efficiency.

I think Doctor Carter's work in this field is the most promising.

From the Agenda (повестка дня) we have all just received

you can see that Dr.Carter will speak on his work

tomorrow,

Pr.B.: I have already seen this paper on the program, 1 won't miss

(пропустить) it. Have you attended the morning session?

Pr. S.: The most interesting was the discussion on the problems of

the balance between the needs of mankind and the conservation

of the natural resources.

Pr. В.: Have you taken part in it?

Pr. S.: Certainly. I've spoken about clean and efficient technology in

the field of electrical engineering.

Exercise 4. Comment on the following statement.

The teaching routine procedures (заведенный порядок, общеизвестная

и установившаяся практика) ought to be the main

aim of education.

One point of view: Routine makes life and experiments easier, it saves energy; experience

of past generations takes on the form of routine; routine helps us to avoid

risks; thanks to routine we don't have to rediscover things; routine ensures efficiency

while experimenting, it enables us to achieve a high level of predictabiUty.

A contrary point of view: Routine kills invention and discovery, it is opposite to

creativity; it is necessary to avoid routine so that the world can be changed for the

better; young people ought to develop their imagination, but not learn routine; routine

is the exact opposite of youthfulness; routine is boring; the best idea would be to combine

routine with improvisation.

Exercise 5. Conduct a round-table discussion on «Superconductivity Research

».

Use texts 11 A, B, С as a basis for the preparation of oral talks and discussion.

Useful words and phrases of scientific communication are given in exercise 5 (see Lesson

10 «Conversation»).

Exercise 6, Read and smile.

For a long time Edison's visitors wondered (удивлялись) why

the gate (калитка) to his garden was so difficult to open.

Once his friend said: «The gate to your garden is so heavy. I

have to use all my strength to open it. I cannot understand this.

You are such a brilliant man. You can invent something better».

«The gate seems to be all right», Edison answered with a smile.

«The fact is that it is a brilliant invention.» «You are laughing at

me, sir!» «No, I am not. The gate is connected to a pump. Everybody

who comes in pumps twenty litres of water out of the well

(колодец).»

An absent-minded (рассеянный) professor was once travelling

by electric train, and when the conductor came the professor

couldn't find his ticket.

«It's all right, sir», said the conductor who knew the professor

very well, «I'll come at the next station».

But at the next station there was the same difficulty, the professor

couldn't find his ticket anywhere.

«It's all right, sir, it doesn't matter (не имеет значения)», said

the conductor. «No, no I must find the ticket, I must know where

I'm going to!»

Text IIB

Прочитайте текст и озаглавьте его.

Superconductivity is а state of matter that chemical elements,

compounds and alloys assume on being cooled to temperatures

near to absolute zero. Hence, a superconductor is a solid material

that abruptly loses all resistance to the flow of electric current when

cooled below a characteristic temperature. This temperature differs

for different materials but generally is within the absolute zero

(-273 °C). Superconductors have thermal, electric and magnetic

properties that differ from their properties at higher temperatures

and from properties of nonsuperconductive materials.

Now hundreds of materials are known to become superconductors

at low temperature. Approximately 26 of the chemical elements

are superconductors. Among these are commonly known

metals such as aluminium, tin, lead and mercury and several less

common ones.

Most of the known superconductors are alloys or compounds.

It is possible for a compound to be superconducting even if the

chemical elements constituting it are not.

Text l ie




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