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The conceptual approach to the English article system




Follow-Up Work

1. How are articles approached in terms of their status in English?

2. Compare the meaning of category used as a word of general language and as a term.

3. Give a definition of a grammatical category. Comment on the difference between grammatical and lexical categories with illustrations.

4. Analyse the system of grammatical categories of the English nouns.

 

 

In view of the fact that articles in English are considered to be a manifestaion of the conceptual category, we find it natural to suggest a conceptual approach to their study.

As has just been mentioned, article forms of nouns are grammatical means of reference, used to specify the thing-meant denoted by a noun: a person, an object, an idea may be taken in its most concrete, less concrete and most abstract sense. This means that with the exception of uncount nouns any English noun may be determined by each of the existing categorial forms, such as the definite article, the indefinite article, and the meaningful absence of the article or the zero article. As distinct from the traditional approach with its focus on the noun and its lexical-grammatical status, such an assumption will enable the learners to discuss the use of nouns in various article forms regardless any categorisation and deal first and foremost with the concept ( понятие ), or conception (представление) the speaker/writer has of the thing-meant represented by an article form of the noun, which determines its lexical-grammatical properties.

The traditional order of the article presentation in grammar books conditioned by the lexical-grammatical classification of nouns is as follows: the indefinite, the definite article, and the zero article. However, in view of the conceptual opposition of abstraction and specification, the subject may be considered in a different perspective: the starting point should be abstraction of the thing-meant, which is marked by the zero article form of the noun.

The next step is to show that the referent is taken in a more concrete, narrower sense and thus should be determined by the nominal form with the indefinite article which always performs a classifying function.

The final step is to demonstrate utmost specification, or individualisation of the thing-meant specified by the nominal form with the definite article.

It follows, therefore, that the approach is based on the unique semiotic functions performed by the article forms of nouns in English: each of them is meant to signify a certain stage of cognitive processes going on in the speaker’s mind.

It should be noted that the functioning of article forms of nouns is often related to the syntactic patterns, specially chosen to support and fit in with the conceptions denoted by nominal forms.

The conceptual approach will be now applied to most common and frequently used nouns, which play a significant part in the conceptual system of the language. The material comprises the illustrative phraseology borrowed from English unilingual dictionaries. [11]

First let us analyse some abstract nouns in terms of its article determination, such as life and pleasure. Here come the illustrations of the noun life when its referent is taken in the most generalised, abstract sense, which is marked by the zero article:

 

The floods caused a massive loss of life.

Hurry, doctor, it’s a matter of life and death.

Life began on Earth millions years ago.

In spring the countryside bursts into life.

The plant may recover; it’s very dry and withered, but there’s still life in it.

The story is very true to life.

Life isn’t like in the movies.

There is little plant life in the desert.

Cultural life in England takes so many forms that a brief summary can only attempt to suggest its variety.

She enjoyed political life.

Commuting is a part of daily life for many people.

That’s life. /Such is life.

 

Although the above uses of the noun are given in the dictionaries to illustrate its different dictionary meanings, what is common to all of them is the conceptual opposition of life to a variety of ideas, (such as death, inorganic substance, or other forms of life) which underlies and supports the process of generalisation. The illustrative phraseology convincingly shows how complex the idea of life may be, and, thus, depending on the type of opposition, the meaning of the noun may be specified. Compare: life – death, life – inanimate matter, human life – plant life – insect life – bird life; cultural life – political life; adult life – childhood; working life – old age; city life – village life; prison life – freedom. The opposition may be both explicit, i.e. expressed by lexical means, and implicit, like in the contexts above. The final examples, which are common English phrases, imply that human experiences may be not only enjoyable but painful.

Such attributes as daily, cultural, political, etc. are indispensable constituents of the corresponding concepts. They take part in the process of generalisation, without performing a classifying or individualizing function.

The more currency a word gains, the more varied its conceptual opposition is, and, naturally, the more complex semantics could be observed. For instance, in combination with the word literature, the noun life acquires the meaning “reality” which is explicitly opposed to “fiction”:

The order of the ideas, their suddenness and irrelevancy, is more true to life than literature. (V. Woolf)

This example shows that if conceptual opposition is expressed syntactically, it takes the form of the so-called parallel structure, i.e. combinations of identical or semantically related nouns. [12] More information about parallel structures can be found in §§ 5, 9.

The use of the indefinite article always suggests a new stage of cognizance as the concept denoted by a noun is taken in a more concrete way. The function the indefinite article thus performs is classifying. It is meant to show that a concept is no longer generalised but narrowed down to a typical representative of the class. Note that any instance of abstraction indicated by the zero article, with the exception of uncountable nouns, may turn into classification:

 

She’s had a hard life.

I just want to be able to lead a quiet life.

He has a full social life.

Since an early age he’d led a life of crime.

They emigrated to start a new life in Canada.

A vigorous cultural life in Scotland has as its highlight the annual Edinburgh International festival, one of the world’s leading cultural events.

The above examples show how the generalised ideas of life may narrow down to a human life span and describe it in its variety. Complex notions like, for instance, cultural life may be taken in a more specific meaning under the influence of such factors as time and space: it is a cultural experience or activity both residents and visitors enjoy once a year in the capital of Scotland.

The idea of classification may take various forms. First, it invariably points to a singular object as a representative of a certain class, thus taking the form of singularity. Second, classification may suggest comparison in the sense that within a class objects are basically similar, yet in some respect may differ. Third, classification may be represented as variety or multiplicity, the indefinite article pointing to any member of the class in question. This does not mean, however, that classification should necessarily take only one of these 3 forms. In the above examples, the indefinite article points to either one’s life or a type of cultural life and, thus, suggests singularity. Besides, in each context, the notion of life is implicitly compared with its possible counterpart: a hard life – an easy life; a quiet life – a hectic life; a full social – life – a dull life; a life of crime – a life of luxury, and so on. It is quite natural, therefore, that the idea of classification is frequently supported by descriptive attributes.

The definite article indicates the final stage of narrowing down the idea to the point of individualization, identification, or definiteness. This again may be either explicit or implicit:

 

He was the life and soul of the party.

What an accurate portrait – it’s him to the life.

What do you think will happen in the life to come?

This is the life.

 

In the first three examples, the identification of life is expressed: first, it is related to a particular person who is the source of enjoyment; second, it refers to a particular person who is copied exactly; third, it points to the supposed existence after life on earth. The fourth sentence, on the contrary, is meant to show that the speaker is enjoying his life because he is not working.

The next noun that will be analysed in terms of its reference by means of the articles is pleasure. As a generalised concept, determined by the zero article it often occurs in a number of collocations:

 

He smiled with pleasure when she walked in.

His books have given enormous pleasure to many people.

She gets great pleasure from her garden.

We bought an old barn and took great pleasure in rebuilding it.

It gives me great pleasure to introduce our guest speaker.

He took great pleasure in pointing out my mistakes.

I get a lot of pleasure from travelling.

 

The analysis shows that in these cases the absence of the article supports the ideas of enjoyment, satisfaction, delight, joy, etc. and implies their opposition to displeasure, dissatisfaction, pain or sorrow. The meaning can be intensified by means of such attributes as great, enormous, a lot of.

A slightly modified, though still generalised meaning of the noun can be revealed if another opposition is taken into account: pleasure people derive from holidays, travels, etc. It is either implicitly or explicitly opposed to their work, concentration, responsibility, commitments and so on. If the opposition is expressed, it takes the form of a parallel structure:

 

I never have time to read for pleasure.

The customs official asked him if he was travelling for business or pleasure.

Business before pleasure.

 

Finally, when used as part of a positive answer, the noun under analysis may be used in the generalised meaning of consent or permission (opposed to disagreement, refusal, etc.):

 

‘May I sit here?’ ‘Yes, with pleasure. ’

 

The indefinite article, as usual, shows how the primary generalised meaning of pleasure can be narrowed down to an instance of it related to a fact or situation, such as meeting someone, talking to a person. Classification here normally takes the form of comparison, as an event the speaker/writer refers to may be implicitly compared with a less pleasurable experience:

 

It’s a pleasure to meet you. / It's been a pleasure meeting you.

‘Thanks for doing that.’ ‘ It’s a pleasure. ’

It’s a great pleasure to introduce tonight’s guest speaker, Mr Dennis Taylor.

 

As follows from the contexts, the idea of classification is supported syntactically: the noun is introduced by the anticipatory it and often takes a descriptive attribute.

The definite article demonstrates the highest level of identification of pleasure in a given context. What makes for it is the reference to a particular memorable event or situation which either took place in the past or is planned. The factual information is provided by a limiting attribute in postposition to the noun:

 

She had the pleasure of seeing him look surprised.

We request the pleasure of your company at the marriage of our daughter Lisa.

I had the pleasure of having dinner with him last night.

 

The above uses of the noun under discussion are rather formal. The formality sometimes may produce an ironical effect:

 

I’ve got the pleasure of a visit to the dentist tomorrow.

 

Now let us discuss the concrete noun town. The analysis of the illustrative phraseology reveals a variety of its generalised meanings, i.e. when it is used with the zero article. First, it happens when town is conceptually opposed to country: it is the opposition of “rural life” to “country life”:

 

I definitely prefer town to country.

 

Second, town may be used in the meaning “the city centre where all the shops are” when it is implicitly opposed to the outskirts:

 

The outskirts/edge of town; a large industrial development on the edge of town

The hotel is conveniently situated near the centre of town.

He married a girl from out of town.

Can you give me a lift into town?

We’re going into town this afternoon.

 

Third, town may refer to “the chief city of an area (in England, usually, London” in implicit opposition to smaller localities around it:

 

I’ll be in town next week if you want to meet.

The crew was in town last week filming a new television series.

I’ll be out of town next week.

He moved to another part of town.

They live in a rough part of town.

 

Finally, the noun may denote ”the people who live in a town” as opposed to “the people who belong to the university in that town”, which can only be revealed in the set phrase town and gown. It is used to emphasize the differences of background and attitude which prevent a happy relationship. It is not surprising that such a meaning is represented by a parallel structure:

 

The project forges new links between town and gown.

 

It is much easier to define the noun in its classifying sense: “a locality smaller than a city but larger than a village”:

A small town; a town on the River Thames

He comes from an industrial town in China

The definite article as a means of identification indicates a particular town. Here the noun may be used both with a limiting attribute in pre- or postposition, or without it. In the latter case, it picks up on its previous uses in the text:

Most of the town was involved with the carnival.

Mountains overlook the town on three sides.

The park is owned and maintained by the town.

We usually go out on the town on Friday nights.

The nearest town is ten miles away.

We spent a month in the French town of Le Puy.

The wholetown is/are furious about the council’s education policy.

 

 




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