Selecting quality seed of cereal grains

Unit 4

Unit 3

In this unit you will find the answers for the following questions:

- Are there general notes on vegetables?

- How to sow and cultivate beetroot?

- How to protect beetroot from pests and diseases?

- How to cultivate carrots?

- What do marrows “like”?

- Have onions a long vegetation growing?

- Why do green peppers taste best?

- Why do we like potatoes so much?

General notes on vegetables

Sowing Always try to get the ground prepared well in advance of the sowing dates; most fertilizers, whether organic or inorganic, need time to work their way in. Ideally, you should just have to rake over the surface before taking out a drill and sowing, but of course if there has been heavy rain or prolonged drought, last minute digging will have to be done. But if you have dug the ground before the weather becomes bad, it will be very much easier to work and will repay dividends in the following spring and summer.

Cultivation Seed packets usually give ideal widths for planting distances. Unless you wish to exhibit produce, you will get heavier crops with closer plantings, although of course there are limits. Reducing specified spacings by 10% will produce adequate crops from more plants. Always leave yourself room to get between the rows to harvest however, and do not skimp on potato planting distances — otherwise not only will you be unable to dig them up properly, but there will be nowhere to draw soil from for earthing-up.

Pests and Diseases A healthy plant in a healthy soil is the best ideal to bear in mind. However, unless you feel strongly about chemical assis­tance, you will spray or dust your plants sooner or later rather than watch your crops disappear and die before your eyes. But remember to leave at the very least two weeks between the final treatment and harvesting, and if you are afraid that the time left may have been on the short side, wash all produce several times in clean water before cooking.

Varieties The cost of seeds is of course very much lower than the cost of produce at the greengrocer's, but even so, prices are rising rapidly, and you may be tempted to save your own seed. The correct method and storage procedures should be looked up in a more specialized work, but one important fact to bear in mind is that you should not try using seed saved from hybrids — it is unlikely to breed true, and the cases where it does will be outnumbered by those where it does not — Mendel's Law shows that three out of four seeds are likely not to breed true.

Beetroot Betavulgaris

Beetroot is a maritime plant, requiring a sandy soil and one containing some salt. Before sowing the seed, dig a little common salt into the ground and add some superphosphate and sulphate of potash mixed together. The leaves can be eaten as well as the root; they should be cooked in the same way as spinach.

Sowing Seed can be sown in mid-April in the south, and early May in the north — the young plants can be harmed by frost. Like all root vegetables, beetroot should not be grown on freshly manured soil, as this will cause the roots to fork. It does however like a soil which has been manured for a previous crop, one which is well-dug and finely raked, and a pH of about 6.

Seed should be sown in drills 3cm deep and 38cm apart. Soaking the seed over­night before sowing will speed germination. The seeds usually come in a group of three stuck together, so once the plants germinate, it will be necessary to remove the two weaker ones. Thin the remaining plants so that there is 13cm between each. Sowing should be carried out every month for succession, and the final drill should be sown in July for medium sized roots in late autumn.

Cultivation Beetroot must always be kept moist, as otherwise the roots will grow hard and woody and the plants run to seed prematurely in warm weather. Peat or spent mushroom com­post will help with moisture retention, and will also lighten the soil. Hoeing should not really be necessary; the beetroot leaves will keep most weeds down. Hand weeding during germina­tion is worth the trouble — you are unlikely to pull up the plants inadvertently, due to their distinctive colouring.

The younger the plants are pulled, the better the roots taste. Most catalogues suggest wait­ing until they are the size of a tennis ball, but try picking alternate plants along the row when they are the size of golf balls — these will be very tender, and there will be room for the remaining plants to develop to tennis ball size for winter use.

When lifting the roots, take care to ensure that they are not damaged, as with many varieties breaking of the skin or bruising can cause the plants to 'bleed' causing them to go pale pink when cooked, and to lose much of their flavour. Those not for immediate eating can be stored for the winter in boxes of dry sand or peat in a frost free place.

Pests and Diseases Phoma lingham causes young beet seedlings to turn brown and decay. It is carried in the seeds, and most are now packeted coated in thiram as a preventive measure. Another occasional trouble is downy mildew, which appears as a white powder on the undersides of the leaves. It should be controlled by spraying the plants with a weak Bordeaux mixture solution. Apart from these two occasional diseases, beetroot are a remark­ably trouble-free crop.

Carrots Daucus carota

The best carrots are those sown and harvested early. Although it is such a staple part of our vegetable diet now, it was only at the beginning of the 18th century that carrots started to be prized for their food value rather than merely for their foliage.

Sowing The ground should have been man­ured for a previous crop; fresh manure causes the roots to fork. The best soil is a sandy, well-drained loam. Rake the soil to a fine tilth, and sow the seed in drills 1cm deep and leave 25cm between rows. Sowings can be made successionally from April until July, or a first sowing can be made under cloches in March. If your soil tends to be heavy, sow the short, stump-rooted varieties.

Cultivation As soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, thin them to 5cm apart in the row, and about a fortnight later, thin them again to 10cm. These second thinnings can be used in salads or soups. During dry weather, water the plants regularly, and give them an occasional application of dilute liquid manure. As the roots mature, make sure the tops are not above the soil, or they will turn green. Cover them with a little soil.

Lift the carrots as they are wanted, but those to be kept for the winter should be lifted before November and stored in sand or peat in a frost free place: if they are subjected to frost in the ground, or to excessive wet, the roots will split.

Pests and Diseases Carrot fly is the most serious problem. The larvae are attracted by the smell of the carrots, and burrow into the young roots making them virtually unusable. Dusting the seedlings with Lindex gives control. Split ting is a common problem with carrots; it is often caused by a heavy rain following a long period of drought, or by a soil deficient in potash. Steady watering during drought will help prevent it.

Marrows Cucurbita pepo

Marrows should be planted in full sun, but they need shelter from cold winds. Courgettes are marrows picked young for their delicate taste; however some varieties have been specially bred to produce a lot of small fruits rather than a small number of large ones.

Sowing Marrows resent being transplanted, so the best idea is to sow the seeds in individual 8cm peat pots. The pots should be filled with sowing mix, and the seeds pressed into it with their pointed ends towards the top, and just covered by the compost. Sowing should take place at the end of March, or in early April. The pots should be very thoroughly soaked, and placed just touching each other in the box or frame. If they are in a frame, the lights should be kept closed until germination has taken place, and the frame should be covered with sacking at night if April frosts are expected.

In early May, when the plants have formed their second pair of leaves, they should be gradually hardened off. By the end of the month, the plants should be ready for setting out.

Cultivation Marrows used to be planted on top of heaps of compost, but nowadays this must be thought an extravagant use of organic matter. Marrows will do perfectly well planted on the flat, but they must have as much humus as is available dug into the soil, and must always be kept moist.

When the plants are set out at the end of May, allow 90 to 120cm between bush varieties, and slightly more for the trailers. When the plants have made about 45cm of growth, pinch out the centre shoot to encour­age the plant to form side shoots. A mulch of peat and rotted manure will do a lot of good, and watering with liquid manure from the time the first fruits begin to form is also beneficial.

When harvesting, do not allow the marrows (or courgettes) to grow to monster size; flavour will deteriorate, and the plant will be less likely to produce further fruits. Marrows will be damaged by frost, so make sure all, including those for storage, have been lifted by the first frost.

Pests and Diseases A white powdery substance underneath the leaves is the sign of a mildew attack. Routine spraying with Bordeaux mix­ture will prevent outbreaks. Slugs can be controlled with methiocarb pellets, and aphids by spraying with derris dust. Marrows can also suffer from cucumber mosaic virus, there is no cure for this, and infected plants should be burnt as soon as possible.

Onions AIlium cepa

The onion needs a long growing season if it is to produce large bulbs, and so in more northern parts of the country it is advisable to plant sets rather than start from seeds, if a greenhouse is not available.

Sowing Sow the seeds in a heated greenhouse or frame in mid-January, and transplant into deep boxes of rich compost in March. Seeds can also be sown under cloches in early February, or in warm areas in October, and allowed to overwinter. Dust with calomel and then sow in shallow drills thinly.

Cultivation As onions may be grown in the same ground for several years, a special bed can be prepared, incorporating humus to a depth of 60cm, with some well-rotted manure added. The bed should be brought to a fine tilth and allowed to settle before planting.

Onions raised from seed should be set out in early April. Plant them with half the bulb showing above the ground, and dust with calomel to protect against onion fly attacks, four weeks later.

If sets are being used, press them into the soil, allowing 15cm between bulbs, and 30cm between the rows.

While the onions are growing, keep hoeing between the rows and water copiously in dry weather. Stop watering in mid-August to allow the bulbs to ripen, and bend over the tops, just above the necks, to assist the ripening process. When the leaves have turned yellow and shrivelled, the onions are ready for harvesting.

Pests and Diseases Downy mildew attacks the onions late in the season, appearing in the form of a white fungus coating the leaves, which can cause the leaves to die back, preventing the bulbs from developing. It occurs most often in a wet season, and should be controlled by dusting the plants with a mixture of lime and sulphur. Onion fly is by far the most troublesome pest; the flies lay their eggs in the soil in May and June, and the maggots tunnel their way into the bulbs. Dusting the bulbs before planting into calomel solution and dusting the growing rows with calomel dust should prevent attacks.

Smut attacks seedlings at soil level and is a notifiable disease: the spores can remain active in the soil for twenty years. To avoid attacks, immerse the sets before sowing in a mixture of 125ml of formalin in 181 of water.

A point worth noting is that autumn sown onion seeds are rarely subject to onion fly attacks.

Peppers Capsicum annuum

Sweet peppers are grown in a similar manner to tomatoes, to which they are related. They taste best if they are picked when they are green; they will gradually turn red, but although these will look attractive in salads and other dishes, there is a considerable loss of flavour and texture.

Sowing Sow the seeds in March in individual peat pots at a temperature of 16°C. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, they should be transplanted to 10cm pots, and hardened off if they are to go outside. If the plants are to be grown in the greenhouse, they should be potted on in to 20cm pots towards the end of May.

Cultivation Outdoor plants should be set out 40cm apart from one another in a sunny spot on rich soil. They can be kept under cloches until the plants become too tall for these. Both indoor and outdoor peppers should be kept well watered, and weekly liquid manure feeds will improve the crop.

The growing tip of the plant should be pinched out when the plant is about 45cm high, and it may be necessary to stake the plants. The fruits should be ready for harvest­ing from August onwards.

Pests and Diseases Red spider is probably the worst pest of capsicums, sucking the sap out. A humid atmosphere will help the plants, and syringing the plants twice a day is one answer. Fruit spot can be recognized by the red indenta­tions on the fruits, and infected fruits should be picked off and destroyed. Spraying with Bor­deaux mixture will give control. Grey mould attacks all parts of the plant above the soil surface, forming large grey blotches. Avoiding crowding greenhouse plants is advisable to reduce the spread of infection, and control can be gained by spraying with shirlan.

Potatoes Solanum tuberosum

The potato is the most widely eaten vegetable in Europe.

Potatoes have a very useful quality: they will 'clean' land which is being brought under cultivation for the first time, providing plenty of manure is added. Perennial weeds are often difficult to eradicate, but the processes of cultivating and lifting potatoes clears the ground, and the manuring ensures that it is in good condition for future crops. Potatoes are unlike the majority of other vegetables in that they prefer a slightly acid soil. Add peat if you live in a lime area; otherwise there may be a tendency to scab. The ground should always be dug during the late autumn, so that the frost and wind can break it down during the winter.

Starting the Tubers Crops will be larger if the tubers are well-sprouted before planting, and this will also ensure the earliest possible crop. If a tuber has several eyes, it can be cut into pieces, each with an eye, but the plants from these will very probably only produce the same weight of crop as the one plant from the whole tuber — there is a fairly precise correlation between the weight of the original tuber and the ultimate weight of the crop.

Sprouting should be commenced about six weeks before the potatoes are to be planted. Do not plant too early; wait until the soil is in a friable condition.

Cultivation For heavy crops, take out a trench to a depth of 23cm and place 18cm of well rotted manure in the bottom, and the same amount of peat on top of this. Press the tubers into the peat about 50cm apart from one another, and leaves 60cm between the rows, mainly to allow room for earthing up. Remember you can use this space in the early stages of growth for catch crops of radishes, lettuces and carrots. Fill the trench up over the potatoes.

Potatoes like an open sunny position, with a maximum of sunshine. Ideally the rows should run from north to south so that both sides obtain the same amount of sunlight. If frost is expected, cover the rows with sacking at night; frost will probably not kill the crops, but it will give them a severe setback, and the first potatoes will not be ready until some days later than if they had been given protection. As the leaves appear above the soil, the foliage should be earthed up to 8cm and again a month later to a similar depth. At the same time, spray with Bordeaux mixture to prevent attacks of potato blight.

Harvesting Start to lift the potatoes when the foliage dies down; for early potatoes, start lifting at the beginning of June. Lift the tubers with a fork, taking care to start digging well away from the plant so as not to stick the tines through individual potatoes. After lifting, burn the haulm so that there can be no chance of disease being transmitted to the next year's crop.

Pests and Diseases Wart disease attacks the stems and lower leaves, and when the plants are lifted, the tubers have a swollen and knobbly appearance. Another pest is Colorado beetle. It has orange and black striped wings, and measure just over lcm when fully grown. It winters in the soil and lays orange eggs on the plants. The grubs are also orange, and are so destructive that they can wipe out a plantation in days. As a precaution, treat the soil with Aldrin dust before planting.

Black leg is the name for bacterial rot of potato tubers which can occur in a wet season. It causes slimy patches on the tuber and smells unpleasant when cut. Clean seed should be a sufficient precaution; cutting tubers increases the risk of spreading the disease. Blight is a disease which can cause serious damage, but can be prevented by spraying the foliage early in July with Bordeaux mixture, and make sure that potatoes are properly rotated so that the fungus cannot take a hold. The outward signs are dark brown blotches on the stems and leaves.

Eelworm is a pest which attacks the tubers making them slimy, and causing the foliage to turn yellow and die back. There is no known cure, and where an attack has occurred, it is best not to plant potatoes again for four years. In cases of minor attacks, treatment with Jeyes Fluid in water a month before planting has been known to work.

Scab is just what it sounds like: rough, scabby spots on the tubers. Where the infestation is severe, the whole surface of the potato may be covered. Green manuring before plant­ing often prevents an outbreak. Leaf scorch is caused by potash deficiency, and is recognized by the tendency of the leaves to curl at edges. An application of sulphate of potash when planting the tubers should prevent an outbreak of leaf scorch.

Questions and tasks for comprehension.

1. What notes are the best for excellent yields of vegetables?

2. What kind of soil do carrots “like”?

3. Is there any protection against marrow pests and diseases?

4. What notes are the best for successful sowing of onions?

5. What notes are good for the best cultivation of beetroot?

6. How to sow and cultivate capsicum?

7. In what way do potatoes “clean” land?

Task 1. Here are some expressions with the words referring to the topic “vegetables”. Translate them into Ukrainian. Consult the dictionary, if necessary:

1. the stick and the carrot policy

2. as cool as a cucumber

3. not to have a bean

4. full of beans

5. not worth a bean

6. to spill the beans

7. to found the bean in the cake

8. to eat the (or one’s) leek

9. to the marrow of one’s bones

10. to know one’s onions

11. as like as two peas

12. quite the potato

13. mint of money

14. mint of trouble

15. to be on nettles

Task 2. Choose the correct answer:

1. It may be grown in the same ground for several years.

a) cucumber

b) onions

c) radishes

2. Start to lift it when the foliage dies down.

a) tomatoes

b) potatoes

c) sweet corn

3. Pick beetroots when they are the size of …

a) a golf ball

b) a tennis ball

c) a football

4. They taste best if they are picked when they are green.

a) peas

b) beans

c) sweet peppers

5. Carrots started to be prized for their food value rather than merely for their foliage at the beginning of …

d) the 19^th century

e) the 17^th century

f) the 18^th century

6. Aubergines are also known as …

a. violet plants

b. eggplants

c. oval plants

7. … are marrows picked young for their delicate taste.

a. courgettes

b. aubergines

c. water-melons

Task 3. Sum up:

1. Potato is the second bread in Ukraine. Prove it.

2. Compare notes on sowing and cultivation of different kinds of vegetables. Are they similar?

In this unit you will find the answers for the following questions:

- What is cereal?

- Which cereals are the most important?

- Why have cereals received so much attention for domestication and development?

- What do you look for in quality seed?

- What do you avoid in seed selection?

- Why does week seed produce weak seedlings?

- Why is wheat produced?

- How does the wheat get from the farm to international markets?

Cereal crops

What is a cereal?

Man's most widely used crops are the cereals. Cereals are members of the grass family (Gramineae), which produce large edible grains either for human or livestock consumption.

The grain or seed (wheat kernels are seen here) is an edible fruit, consisting of the endosperm and the embryo (or germ). The endosperm is stored food and makes up the majority of the seed. White wheat flour consists of the endosperm of a grain of wheat. Wheat germ is also sold in stores and is used in many bread recipes.

Grains are rich in carbohydrates and contain substantial amounts of protein, as well as some fat and vitamins.

Why would they be grown?

Wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye (temperate climates) and maize (corn) (tropical /subtropical climates) are the six principle cereal crops, which, worldwide, provide over half of man's food energy and much of the essential proteins and vitamins.

Over 70% of the world's harvested area is planted to grains, for an output of a billion and a half tonnes a year. Sorghum, and millet are also used in subtropical and tropical countries like Asia and Africa.

Cereals are excellent converters of energy (wheat is almost twice as efficient as the potato at converting the sunlight's energy into food). They are principally grown as an energy source with maize being the highest, and oats the lowest. They are also a good source of protein (4-16%), but have a poor amino acid balance (being deficient in lysine and methionine).

Cereal crops also have industrial uses including;

• paper
• adhesives
• food thickeners
• and food preservatives

Which cereals are the most important?

On a world scale, wheat and rice are the most important cereals. They are used directly for human consumption (as is rye).

Maize, barley, and oats are principally animal feed. The most widely used animal feeds are different pasture grasses, which may be grazed, harvested and fed as hay or fermented to be fed as haylage or silage.

Why have cereals received so much attention for domestication and development?

There are many reasons that cereals were domesticated and have been used so extensively for agriculture. A few of this reasons are listed.

· Members of the grass family are hardy and well adapted to a wide range of growing conditions. They are found everywhere that plants grow.

· Due to the fact that annuals are selected, food production is ensured each year, and in some areas, more than once a year.

· Fully ripened grass seeds are fairly small, with a very low water content. This enables them to be transported and handled easily, as being able to be stored under cool dry conditions for a long period time. The lower water content also means that the seed has higher energy value.

· Wheat, rice, and corn supply most of the plant energy to the world today.

· Rice is grown in almost 90 countries, mostly consumed locally. It provides from 25-80% of the daily caloric intake of nearly half of the world`s population.

· Wheat has the highest protein content of any cereal, and is the highest in production and trade volume.

Farmers are particular about the variety of seed they grow. That means they understand the advantage of improved genetic potential. They should also be aware of the agronomic characteristics of the seed lot they select. After variety selection, the most emphasis must be put on obtaining and maintaining top quality planting seed. A seed contains a young, live plant (the germ) and a supply of food to start the young plant (the endosperm).

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