Differences in the articulation bases of English and Russian jvowels 1 страница

Vowel Length

All English vowels are divided into long and short vowels.

Long vowels are - [ i: a: o: u: ə:]
Shortvowels are - [ i e o u Λ ə]

Articulation bases of English and Russian vowels are different.

(1) The lips. In the production of Russian vowels the lips are con­
siderably protruded and rounded /о, у/. In the articulation of the
similar English h, o:/, /u, u:/ considerable protrusion does not take
place. Englishmen have the so called "flat-type" position of the lips,
their lips are more tense than the lips of the Russian, and the corners
of the lips are raised, which resembles a smile.

(2) The bulk of the tongue. In the articulation of the English vow­
els the bulk of the tongue occupies more positions than in the pro­
duction of the Russian yowels. When the bulk of the tongue moves
in the horizontal direction it may occupy a fully front and a front-
retracted, a fully back and a back-advanced position. Horizontal move­
ments of the tongue condition the articulation of the /э, э:/ vowels,
which are of mixed type.

Each of the three vertical positions of the tongue (high, mid, low) in English is subdivided into a narrow and broad variety. Thus, sixgroups of vowel sounds are formed in the system of English vowels.

Such broad variety of the bulk of the tongue positions is not ob­served in the production of the Russian vowel sounds. When clas­sified according to the vertical movement of the tongue they may be divided into; high — /и, ы, у/, mid — /э, о/ and low — /a/.

According to the horizontal movement of the bulk of the tongue Russian vowels may be subdivided into: front — /и, э/, central — /ьг, a/ and back — /о, у/. The articulatory peculiarities in the pro­nunciation of English vowels constitute the basis for the formation of diphthongs when the position of the tongue changes within the articulation of one and the same vowel.

(3) The principle of the degree of tenseness in vowel classification
is inseparably connected with the free or unchecked and checked char­
acter of the vowels.

(4) The length of the vowels. Long vowels in English are consid­
ered to be tense. There are no long vowels which can be opposed pho-
neraically to short vowels in the Russian language. Length in the
Russian vowel system is an irrelevant feature.

(5) The stability of articulation. There are monophthongs and
diphthongoids in the Russian vowel system, but there are no diph­
thongs.

(6) There are 6 vowel phonemes in Russian and 20 in English.
Given below are English vowels which have no counterparts in Rus­
sian:

- slightly rounded, but not protruded vowels /u:, o:/;

- vowels articulated with the "flat" position of the lips in the
/i:, i, e, ei/ production;

- very low vowels, such as /se, v, a/;

- front-retracted /i/ and back-advanced /u, a/;

- central or mixed /э, s:/;

- checked and free vowels;

- diphthongs /ei, ai, oi, ю₇ еэ, иэ, аи, эй/.

In articulating EngHsh vowels Russian students are apt to make the following mistakes:

(1) they do not observe the quantitative character of the long
vowels;

(2) they do not observe the qualitative difference in the artic­
ulation of such vowels as /i:— if, /и:—и/, /э:—1>/;

(3) they replace the English vowels /i:, о:, и:, л, за, о., и/ by
the Russian vowels /и, о, у, а, э/;

(4) they pronounce /i:, i, e, ei/ without the "flat position" of
the lips;

(5) they soften consonants which precede /i:, i, e, se, ei/ front
vowels as a result of which the latter become more narrow and
the consonants are palatalyzed.

(6) they articulate /t>, o:, u, u:, эй/ with the lips too much
rounded and protruded;

(7) they make the sounds /se, d/ more narrow because they
don't open the mouth properly, similarly to the Russian /э, о/;

(8) they do not observe the positional length of vowels;

(9) they make both elements of the diphthongs equally distinct;
(10) they pronounce initial vowels with a glottal stop (?).

8) Word Stress

English words have certain patterns of stress which you should observe strictly if you want to be understood. The best way to learn English stress is to listen to audio materials and to repeat them after the speaker. The links on the entrance pages of the sections Phonetics, Phrases, and Vocabulary lead to the sites that offer useful listening materials, including sounds, syllables, words, sentences, and conversations. An overview of typical English patterns of word stress in this material will help you to recognize and understand word stress when you work with listening materials. It will also be helpful to listen to examples of word stress in Listening for Word Stress (AmE) in the section Phonetics. Note: Main stressed syllable in the word is indicated by capital letters in this material, for example, LEMon. In words with two stresses, capital letters with a stress mark before them show the syllable with primary stress, and small letters with a stress mark before them show the syllable with secondary stress, for example, 'eco'NOMics. General guidelines on word stress Generally, common English nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are more often stressed on the first syllable than on any other syllable. Verbs with prefixes are usually stressed on the second syllable, i.e., on the first syllable of the root after the prefix. English words can't have two unstressed syllables at the beginning of the word; one of these syllables will be stressed. If a word has four or more syllables, there are usually two stresses in it: primary stress (strong stress) and secondary stress (weak stress). Also, secondary stress may be present (in addition to primary stress) in shorter words in the syllable in which the vowel remains long and strong. Prefixes are often stressed in nouns and less often in verbs. Suffixes at the end of the word are rarely stressed, except for a few noun, adjective, and verb suffixes that are usually stressed: rooMETTE, 'ciga'RETTE / 'CIGa'rette, Chi'NESE, 'SIGni'fy, 'ORga'nize, 'DECo'rate. In longer derivative words, stress may fall on a suffix or prefix according to typical patterns of word stress. Endings are not stressed. Stress in derivatives Stress in a derivative may remain the same as in the word from which it was derived, or it may change in a certain way. When nouns are formed from verbs, or verbs are formed from nouns, the following patterns of stress often occur. The same stress: deNY (verb) – deNIal (noun), deNY (глагол) – deNIal (существительное),ofFEND (verb) – ofFENCE (noun),ofFEND (глагол) – ofFENCE (существительное),reVIEW (noun) – reVIEW (verb),reVIEW (сущ.) – reVIEW (глагол),PREview (noun) – PREview (verb),PREview (сущ.) – PREview (глагол),HOSpital (noun) – HOSpitalize (verb),HOSpital (сущ.) – HOSpitalize (глагол). Shift of stress: preSENT (verb) – PRESent (noun),preSENT (глагол) – PRESent (существительное), reFER (verb) – REFerence (noun),reFER (глагол) – REFerence (сущ.), exTRACT (verb) – EXtract (noun),exTRACT (глагол) – EXtract (сущ.), inCREASE (verb) – INcrease (noun),inCREASE (глагол) – INcrease (сущ.), OBject (noun) – obJECT (verb), OBject (сущ.) – obJECT (глагол). Other parts of speech derived from nouns and verbs have the following typical patterns of stress. Adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the nouns from which they were derived: fate (noun) – FATal (adj.); COLor (noun) – COLorful (adj.). But stress may change in longer derivative adjectives: METal (noun) – meTALlic (adj.); ATHlete (noun) – athLETic (adj.); geOLogy (noun) – 'geo'LOGical (adj.); ARgument (noun) – 'argu'MENtative (adj.). Adverbs are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the adjectives from which they were derived: ANgry – ANgrily; WONderful – WONderfully; FOOLish – FOOLishly; athLETic – athLETically. Gerunds and participles repeat the stress of the verbs from which they were formed: forGET – forGETting – forGOTten; CANcel – CANceling – CANceled; 'ORga'nize – 'ORga'nizing – ORganized. Typical patterns of stress Let's look at typical examples of stress in English words. Main factors that influence stress are the number of syllables in the word, and whether the word is a noun, an adjective, or a verb. ONE-SYLLABLE WORDS One-syllable nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are stressed on the vowel sound in the word. Note that a diphthong is one complex vowel sound that forms only one syllable. A diphthong is stressed on its first main component.:book, cat, rain, boat, crow, chair, read, burn, touch, choose, laugh, hear, new, bright, large, short, clear, loud, late, fast, soon, now

TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS, Two-syllable nouns, Two-syllable nouns are usually stressed on the first syllable. TEACHer, STUDent, CARpet, LESson, REgion, ILLness, STATEment, CITy CONvict, INcrease, INstinct, OBject, PERmit, PRESent, PROject, SYMbol. Nouns may be stressed on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. Words of foreign origin (especially words of French origin) may be stressed on the last syllable. trainEE, caREER, deLAY, conCERN, poLICE, hoTEL, beRET, rooMETTE. Two-syllable adjectives Two-syllable adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable. FUNny, LOCal, USEful, FOOLish, NATive, CAREless. Some adjectives are stressed on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. abSURD, comPLETE, exTREME, moROSE. If there is a prefix in an adjective, stress often falls on the first syllable of the root after the prefix. inSANE, imMUNE, enGAged, unWELL, unKNOWN. Two-syllable verbs. Two-syllable verbs are usually stressed on the second syllable, especially if the first syllable is a prefix. adMIT, apPLY, beGIN, beLIEVE, comBINE, conFIRM, deNY, deSERVE, disLIKE, misPLACE, exPLAIN, forBID, forGET, igNORE, inVITE, oBEY, ocCUR, perMIT, prePARE, proPOSE, purSUE, reCEIVE, rePLY, supPLY, surPRISE, unDO, unLOCK. But there are many verbs that are stressed on the first syllable. HAPpen, CANcel, PRACtice, ANswer, OFfer, MENtion, FOLlow, BORrow, PUNish. THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS. Three-syllable nouns. Three-syllable nouns are usually stressed on the first syllable. POLitics, GOVernment, GENeral, INterest, GRADuate, CONfidence. But many nouns, especially those derived from verbs with prefixes, have stress on the second syllable. apPROVal, conFUSion, conSUMer, corRECTness, eLECtion, diRECtor. Some nouns have primary stress on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. 'engi'NEER, 'refu'GEE Three-syllable adjectives. Three-syllable adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable. GENeral, DELicate, Excellent, WONderful, FAVorite, CURious. Some adjectives have one more stress on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. 'OBso'lete / 'obso'LETE 'Vietna'MESE, 'Portu'GUESE Some adjectives do not repeat the stress of the noun from which they were derived and are stressed on the second syllable. geNERic, symBOLic, inSTINCtive Three-syllable verbs Three-syllable verbs often have primary stress on the first syllable (even if it is a prefix) and secondary stress on the last syllable (which is often a verb suffix). 'ORga'nize, 'MODer'nize, 'SIGni'fy, 'SPECi'fy COMpen'sate, 'DECo'rate, 'COMpli'ment, 'CONsti'tute But many verbs, especially those with prefixes, have stress on the second syllable. conTINue, conSIDer, reMEMber. If the prefix consists of two syllables, its first syllable usually gets secondary stress. 'under'STAND, 'decom'POSE, 'contra'DICT, 'corre'SPOND. FOUR OR MORE SYLLABLES. Long nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs usually have two stresses: primary stress and secondary stress. But there are some long words with only one stress. There are four patterns of stress in long words. Only one stress: on the first syllable. Nouns: ACcuracy, DELicacy Adjectives: Interesting. Only one stress: on the second syllable. Nouns: inTOLerance, geOMetry, aMERica, simPLICity, moBILity, teLEpathy,acCOMpaniment. Adjectives: sigNIFicant, mysTErious, traDItional, inTOLerable, unREAsonable, noTOrious. Verbs: acCOMpany. Two stresses: on the first and third syllable This is a very common stress pattern in long words in English. Nouns: eco'NOMics, 'infor'Mation, 'consti'TUtion, 'repe'Tition, 'coloni'ZAtion, 'multipli'Cation. Adjectives: 'aca'DEMic, 'geo'METrical, 'inter'NAtional, 'cosmo'POLitan, 'capita'LIStic, 'conver'Sational, 'PAtro'nizing. Two stresses: on the second and fourth syllable. Nouns: con'side'Ration, in'vesti'Gation, con'tinu'Ation Adjectives: ex'peri'MENtal, in'compre'HENsible. Verbs: i'DENti'fy, in'TENsi'fy, in'TOXi'cate, ac'CUmu'late com'MERcia'lize, a'POLo'gize.

Word Stress English words have certain patterns of stress which you should observe strictly if you want to be understood. The best way to learn English stress is to listen to audio materials and to repeat them after the speaker. The links on the entrance pages of the sections Phonetics, Phrases, and Vocabulary lead to the sites that offer useful listening materials, including sounds, syllables, words, sentences, and conversations. An overview of typical English patterns of word stress in this material will help you to recognize and understand word stress when you work with listening materials. It will also be helpful to listen to examples of word stress in Listening for Word Stress (AmE) in the section Phonetics. Note: Main stressed syllable in the word is indicated by capital letters in this material, for example, LEMon. In words with two stresses, capital letters with a stress mark before them show the syllable with primary stress, and small letters with a stress mark before them show the syllable with secondary stress, for example, 'eco'NOMics. General guidelines on word stress Generally, common English nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are more often stressed on the first syllable than on any other syllable. Verbs with prefixes are usually stressed on the second syllable, i.e., on the first syllable of the root after the prefix. English words can't have two unstressed syllables at the beginning of the word; one of these syllables will be stressed. If a word has four or more syllables, there are usually two stresses in it: primary stress (strong stress) and secondary stress (weak stress). Also, secondary stress may be present (in addition to primary stress) in shorter words in the syllable in which the vowel remains long and strong. Prefixes are often stressed in nouns and less often in verbs. Suffixes at the end of the word are rarely stressed, except for a few noun, adjective, and verb suffixes that are usually stressed: rooMETTE, 'ciga'RETTE / 'CIGa'rette, Chi'NESE, 'SIGni'fy, 'ORga'nize, 'DECo'rate. In longer derivative words, stress may fall on a suffix or prefix according to typical patterns of word stress. Endings are not stressed. Stress in derivatives Stress in a derivative may remain the same as in the word from which it was derived, or it may change in a certain way. When nouns are formed from verbs, or verbs are formed from nouns, the following patterns of stress often occur. The same stress: deNY (verb) – deNIal (noun), deNY (глагол) – deNIal (существительное),ofFEND (verb) – ofFENCE (noun),ofFEND (глагол) – ofFENCE (существительное),reVIEW (noun) – reVIEW (verb),reVIEW (сущ.) – reVIEW (глагол),PREview (noun) – PREview (verb),PREview (сущ.) – PREview (глагол),HOSpital (noun) – HOSpitalize (verb),HOSpital (сущ.) – HOSpitalize (глагол). Shift of stress: preSENT (verb) – PRESent (noun),preSENT (глагол) – PRESent (существительное), reFER (verb) – REFerence (noun),reFER (глагол) – REFerence (сущ.), exTRACT (verb) – EXtract (noun),exTRACT (глагол) – EXtract (сущ.), inCREASE (verb) – INcrease (noun),inCREASE (глагол) – INcrease (сущ.), OBject (noun) – obJECT (verb), OBject (сущ.) – obJECT (глагол). Other parts of speech derived from nouns and verbs have the following typical patterns of stress. Adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the nouns from which they were derived: fate (noun) – FATal (adj.); COLor (noun) – COLorful (adj.). But stress may change in longer derivative adjectives: METal (noun) – meTALlic (adj.); ATHlete (noun) – athLETic (adj.); geOLogy (noun) – 'geo'LOGical (adj.); ARgument (noun) – 'argu'MENtative (adj.). Adverbs are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the adjectives from which they were derived: ANgry – ANgrily; WONderful – WONderfully; FOOLish – FOOLishly; athLETic – athLETically. Gerunds and participles repeat the stress of the verbs from which they were formed: forGET – forGETting – forGOTten; CANcel – CANceling – CANceled; 'ORga'nize – 'ORga'nizing – ORganized. Typical patterns of stress Let's look at typical examples of stress in English words. Main factors that influence stress are the number of syllables in the word, and whether the word is a noun, an adjective, or a verb. ONE-SYLLABLE WORDS One-syllable nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are stressed on the vowel sound in the word. Note that a diphthong is one complex vowel sound that forms only one syllable. A diphthong is stressed on its first main component.:book, cat, rain, boat, crow, chair, read, burn, touch, choose, laugh, hear, new, bright, large, short, clear, loud, late, fast, soon, now

TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS, Two-syllable nouns, Two-syllable nouns are usually stressed on the first syllable. TEACHer, STUDent, CARpet, LESson, REgion, ILLness, STATEment, CITy CONvict, INcrease, INstinct, OBject, PERmit, PRESent, PROject, SYMbol. Nouns may be stressed on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. Words of foreign origin (especially words of French origin) may be stressed on the last syllable. trainEE, caREER, deLAY, conCERN, poLICE, hoTEL, beRET, rooMETTE. Two-syllable adjectives Two-syllable adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable. FUNny, LOCal, USEful, FOOLish, NATive, CAREless. Some adjectives are stressed on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. abSURD, comPLETE, exTREME, moROSE. If there is a prefix in an adjective, stress often falls on the first syllable of the root after the prefix. inSANE, imMUNE, enGAged, unWELL, unKNOWN. Two-syllable verbs. Two-syllable verbs are usually stressed on the second syllable, especially if the first syllable is a prefix. adMIT, apPLY, beGIN, beLIEVE, comBINE, conFIRM, deNY, deSERVE, disLIKE, misPLACE, exPLAIN, forBID, forGET, igNORE, inVITE, oBEY, ocCUR, perMIT, prePARE, proPOSE, purSUE, reCEIVE, rePLY, supPLY, surPRISE, unDO, unLOCK. But there are many verbs that are stressed on the first syllable. HAPpen, CANcel, PRACtice, ANswer, OFfer, MENtion, FOLlow, BORrow, PUNish. THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS. Three-syllable nouns. Three-syllable nouns are usually stressed on the first syllable. POLitics, GOVernment, GENeral, INterest, GRADuate, CONfidence. But many nouns, especially those derived from verbs with prefixes, have stress on the second syllable. apPROVal, conFUSion, conSUMer, corRECTness, eLECtion, diRECtor. Some nouns have primary stress on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. 'engi'NEER, 'refu'GEE Three-syllable adjectives. Three-syllable adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable. GENeral, DELicate, Excellent, WONderful, FAVorite, CURious. Some adjectives have one more stress on the last syllable if there is a long vowel or a diphthong in it. 'OBso'lete / 'obso'LETE 'Vietna'MESE, 'Portu'GUESE Some adjectives do not repeat the stress of the noun from which they were derived and are stressed on the second syllable. geNERic, symBOLic, inSTINCtive Three-syllable verbs Three-syllable verbs often have primary stress on the first syllable (even if it is a prefix) and secondary stress on the last syllable (which is often a verb suffix). 'ORga'nize, 'MODer'nize, 'SIGni'fy, 'SPECi'fy COMpen'sate, 'DECo'rate, 'COMpli'ment, 'CONsti'tute But many verbs, especially those with prefixes, have stress on the second syllable. conTINue, conSIDer, reMEMber. If the prefix consists of two syllables, its first syllable usually gets secondary stress. 'under'STAND, 'decom'POSE, 'contra'DICT, 'corre'SPOND. FOUR OR MORE SYLLABLES. Long nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs usually have two stresses: primary stress and secondary stress. But there are some long words with only one stress. There are four patterns of stress in long words. Only one stress: on the first syllable. Nouns: ACcuracy, DELicacy Adjectives: Interesting. Only one stress: on the second syllable. Nouns: inTOLerance, geOMetry, aMERica, simPLICity, moBILity, teLEpathy,acCOMpaniment. Adjectives: sigNIFicant, mysTErious, traDItional, inTOLerable, unREAsonable, noTOrious. Verbs: acCOMpany. Two stresses: on the first and third syllable This is a very common stress pattern in long words in English. Nouns: eco'NOMics, 'infor'Mation, 'consti'TUtion, 'repe'Tition, 'coloni'ZAtion, 'multipli'Cation. Adjectives: 'aca'DEMic, 'geo'METrical, 'inter'NAtional, 'cosmo'POLitan, 'capita'LIStic, 'conver'Sational, 'PAtro'nizing. Two stresses: on the second and fourth syllable. Nouns: con'side'Ration, in'vesti'Gation, con'tinu'Ation Adjectives: ex'peri'MENtal, in'compre'HENsible. Verbs: i'DENti'fy, in'TENsi'fy, in'TOXi'cate, ac'CUmu'late com'MERcia'lize, a'POLo'gize.

10. The accentuation tendencies in English.

The motives for accenting a word or syllable in English include the following:

(1a) Highlighting of contrasts generally overrides all other tendencies to assign deliberate, intended, voluntary ("accentual") stress to a word or syllable.

We may define an accent (or 'accentual stress') as one consciously and voluntarily accorded by a speaker to a particular word or syllable. It should be noted that a pitch movement which is a latter element of a complex tone, even if so delayed that it is effected on a subsequent word, does not constitute an accent. Thus, in a discourse where either the speaker or the person being spoken to has very recently mentioned the compound word "ice cream", when the speaker says "I `like ice ˏcream " this isn’t perceived as an accenting of the word "cream". Such a 'tonetic' representation of the tones as we have just seen may alternatively receive a 'tonological' representation such as "I `ˏlike ice ˳cream" where the Fall-Rise tone selected by the speaker to attach to the compound word "ice cream" (with perhaps for example a motive of sounding not only positive but also, by adding the Rise, agreeable) is not represented as split. This is in order to convey that the tonetic splitting is due to choice of a comfortable rhythm by the speaker not a desire to re-accent the re-occurring word "ice cream". The fact that the Rise is delayed is signalled by the sign ˳ which indicates in this O'Connor-&-Arnold type of notation the point to which the Rise has been postponed. If the notation "I `ˏlike ice cream" were used without the disambiguating ˳ sign it could be taken that the rise element of the Fall-Rise tone applied to ice rather than to cream.

(1b) The perhaps uniquely strong English-language tendency to deny even a syllable within a word (not just a word) its normal stressing in favour of another syllable not normally stressed but conveying or emphasising a contrast is in general never revealed in the written language. However, an extremely rare example of doing so was to be seen in the Journals of Arnold Bennett (1954 p. 88) in which we find “I saw few signs... of suppressed or expressed excitement...” where the writer conveys it by italicisation of a prefix.

Other examples include: Maˈjorities andˋminorities. Midday is normally /mɪd`deɪ/ but midnight /ˋmɪdnaɪt/ yet either pattern may be reversed in contrastive contexts.

A typical example of a usage in which a NNS (non-native speaker of English) may fail to observe the custom of highlighting semantic contrast occurs with the use of a beginning like “In my `country...” when a contrast is intended with another person's country. In such a situation a native English-speaker would normally only say In `my ˏcountry... On the other hand NNSs offen fail to notice that the stressing of A friend of mine, in spite of the suggestion of contrastiveness that mine seems to embody, is usually idiomatically A `friend of mine and is rarely found stressed A friend of `mine unless extreme direct contrastiveness is involved as with Yes he `is a friend of `ˏmine | but I `didnt know he was a friend of `ˏyours `ˏtoo.

(2a) Avoidance of Re-accenting of Re-occurrences. A most powerful application of the "rule" of highlighting of contrasts is seen operating inversely when speakers deny stress to a word etc which reappears quite soon in a discourse. This avoidance of re-accenting of re-occurrences ie of words or even merely syllables which are identical or constitute or embody exactly the same reference is an only occasionally ignored 'rule' for native English speakers. An example of a ordinarily unaccentable syllable in fact usually being stressed would be in citing the title of a journal such as ˈAlcohol and Alcohol`ism.

(2b) A syllable generally considered to completely unstressable by most speakers may very occasionally be heard accented eg It was an exˈciting and excita`ble /ɪksaɪtə`bəl/ performance. Another related accentual possibility for English native speakers reverses this pattern of retrospectively avoiding re-accenting. This occurs as anticipatory avoidance of accenting the usual syllable in a word in order to highlight an accentual contrast with a subsequent word of a phrase. For example, I've found myself beginning a sentence thus: One of the `irritations, but at the same time `fascinations, of the traditional orthography of English... where the ordinary accentuation of each of the words irritation and fascination would be on a later element as irri`tation and fasci`nation but, in order to comply with the strong inclination to highlight the contrast between the two words' initial syllables, I've departed from those normal accentuations. This kind of thing is a fairly common practice but entirely optional for the speaker.

There is a convenient single expression for "the use of a word which refers to, or is a substitute for, a preceding word or group of words" (OED) namely 'anaphora'.

In an exchange like "Wd you like ˈtea or `coffee?" the reply "I'd like `coffee, ˏplease" of course re-accents the word 'coffee' but the 'rule' prohibiting re-accenting of re-occurrences is overridden by the need to accent 'coffee' for the sake of contrasting 'coffee' with 'tea'.

(2c) Whole phrases may be given no accent if they contain immediately repeated matter. For example a speaker who has said "They’ll have nowhere to hide" may receive the response “Yes in`deed they’ll have nowhere to hide” with the repeated "they’ll have nowhere to hide" constituting only an intonational tail (all at a low level pitch) ie being completely without an accent. This is another example of where it would be possible to let the final word rise but that final movement wd be perceived by native-English speakers not as an independent accentual Rise but as the delayed completion of a Fall-Rise complex tone (and so completely non-accentual). The tonetic notation “Yes in`deed they’ll have nowhere to ˏhide” wd make the pitch movement quite explicit but a tonological notation of the type of expression that we exemplified above (such as appeared in O'Connor-&-Arnold 1973) wd show a sentence with exactly that set of pitches as “Yes in`ˏdeed they’ll have nowhere to ˳hide” making the non-accentual value explicit by using the ˳ symbol to indicate where the rise is to be understood to take place. In these notes tonetic transcriptions are normally supplied, tonological ones being resorted to only on occasions where a special need seems to exist such as the preference in some cases not to insert marks of complex tone completion within the body of a word, eg preferring oc`ˏcasionally to oc`casionalˏly.

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