No. 6 hi

S

N

M

N

M

N

N-i

The phoneme /k/ may occur in initial and in terminal posi­tions: epoch /ii:puk/, tea /ti:/.

/i:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pee, be, we

Iabio-dental: feet, veal lingual, forelingual

dental, interdental: theme, the

alveolar: tea, deal, sea, zeal, lee, neat palato-alveolar: she, cheese

post-alveolar, cacuminal: read lingual, medio-Hngual: yield lingual, backlingual: key pharyngal (glottal): he

Iv.l is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: leap, seem

Iabio-dental: leaf lingual, forelingual

dental, interdental: sheath, breathe

alveolar: eat, deed, spleen

palato-alveolar: leash, each

lingual, backlingual: teak, league

It may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis and na­sal consonants, See above.

Before dark [I] a centring glide may be heard.

RP speakers try to avoid any glide in /i;/ pronunciation as "vul­gar". Wide diphthongs are typical of Cockney, Birmingham, South­ern USA and other low prestige dialects.

The phoneme /i/ occurs in initial and in terminal position». It never occurs finally in a stressed open syllable: enough д1плг/_г pity /<piti/.

hi varies with /э/ in unstressed syllables, e. g. helpless, remove. In words with prefixes pre, de, re III is, pronounced, if the prefix i& used to convert a word into a new form, e. g. modify — premcdify_Y contaminate — decontaminate, /э/ instead of /i/ tends to be the domi­nant form, see the latest edition of the English pronouncing dictionary,

hi is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pit, wit

labio-dental: fit, vie lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thin, this

alveolar: tin, din, knit

palato-alveolar: sftip, chin

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rid

lingual, medio-Iingual: yin, yill

lingual, backlingual: kin, give pharyngal: hit

Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: lip, nib

labio-dental: if, live lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: myth

alveolar: it, did, this

palato-alveolar: fish, ridge

lingual, backlingual: pick, big

Final /i/ in modern RP is considerably closer. In Yorkshire and Lancashire a very open vowel, almost like /e/ is found finally, e. g. Ялпе/. /i/ is centralized and lowered before dark lit, e. g. still, silk.

In modern RP /i/ is lower and more centralized than in more old-fashioned speech.

/e/

The phoneme /e/ may occur in initial position, but it never occurs terminally.

/el is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pet, bet

labio-dental: fence, vest äingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: ten, dead

palato-alveolar: shelf, chest

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rest

lingual, medio-lingual: yes

lingual, backlingual: kept pharyngal (glottal): help

Id is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: step, ebb

labio-dental: chef lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: death

alveolar: ate, dead, less

palato-alveolar: fresh, fetch lingual, backlingual: wreck, beg

Some speakers have a more central quality, sometimes with a fi­nal /a/ glide.

/e/ is lowered and centralized before dark [II, e, g. tell, felt. Id is closer before velars, e. g. peg, peck.

The phoneme /ae/ may occur in initial position but it never occurs terminally.

/se/ is longer before Ienis and nasals in: bag, mad, man, sad, bad, that (the only example before a fortis).

Sometimes /se/ has a pharyngal constriction — creaky voice qual­ity.

In affected RP some speakers pronounce Ы with a following /a/ element — diphthongization.

/se/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pat, bad

Iabio-dental: fan lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thank, that

alveolar: tan, dad

palato-alveolar: shall, jam

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran

lingual, medio-Iingual: Yankee

lingual, backlingual: cat pharyngal (glottal): ham

Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: clap, cab

labio-dental: have lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental; hath

alveolar: hat, dad

palato-alveolar: smash, badge

lingual, backlingual: back, bag, sang

A very open /se/ is heard from young speakers.

The phoneme /a/ may occur in initial and in terminal positioni army /lami/, far /fa/,

/a/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: palm, bar

labio-dental: far, vast lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: tar, lark

palato-alveolar: shaft, chance, jar

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raft

lingual, medio-lingual; yard

lingual, backlingual: car, garden pharyngal (glottal): harm

/a:/ is followed by consonants characterized ass labial

5-182 ^I29

bilabial: harp

labiodental: starve lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, Interdental: health

alveolar: heart, hard

palato-alveolar: marsh, targe

lingual, backlmgual: bark

A very back quality of Ы is typical of old-fashioned speech or affected forms.

The phoneme hi may occur in initial position but it never occurs in terminal position. The lip rounding is very slight.

hi is preceded by consonants characterized as; labial

bilabial: pot, box

Iabio-dental: fox, fog lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thong

alveolar: top, dog, sock

palato-alveolar: chop, fob

post-alveolar, cacuminal; rob

lingual, medio-Hngual: yonder

lingual, backlingual: cot, got pharyngal (glottal): hot

/d/ is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: hop, mob

1 abio-dental: off, of lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: moth

alveolar: hot, old, was

palato-alveolar: wash

lingual, backlingual: lock, fog, wrong

The phoneme /o:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: orbit /b:bit/, saw /so:/.

/э:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: port, bought, war

Iabio-dental: for lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thorn

alveolar: talk, door, saw

palato-alveolar: shore, jaw

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raw

lingual, medio-lingual: your

lingual, backlingual: core pharyngal (glottal): horn

/x/ may be followed by consonants characterized as; labial

bilabial: orb

1 abio-dental: cough Singual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: north

alveolar: ought, pause

palato-alveolar: scorch, gorge

Hngual, backlingual: fork

Some speakers pronounce /ээ/ in words with ore, e.g. sore /sds/. It is heard in old-fashioned RP and prevails in dialects.

p:l may be pronounced instead of /иэ/ in: sure /Jo:/, you're /jo:/, poor /po.7. More open varieties of [oil characterize old-fashioned Beech.

/A/

The phoneme /л/ occurs in initial position, but it never occurs terminally. It is the shortest of the checked vowels.

/л/ may be preceded by consonants: labial

bilabial: but, worry

labio-dental: fuss, bulgar lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thunder, thus

alveolar: tub, duck

palato-alveolar: shut, just

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran

lingual, medio-lingual: young

lingual, backlingual: cut pharyngal (glottal): hut

/л! may be followed J3y the following consonants: labial

bilabial: up, tub

labio-dental: rough, love lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: doth

alveolar: bud, but

palato-alveolar: rush, judge

lingual, backlingual: duck, bug, young

/л/ is retractedjbeforejiark Ш, e.g. dull.

The phoneme /u/ occurs initially only in proper names of foreign origin, e.g. Uruguay..

/u/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

6* 131

bilabial: put, book

labiodental: foot lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: took, soot

palato-alveolar: should

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rook

lingual, backlingual: cook, good pharyngal (glottal): hook

/u/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: room lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: put, hood, pull

palalo-alveolar: push, bush, cushion

lingual, backlingual: took, cuckoo

Some speakers pronounce back-advanced M as more central, e.g. good.

/u:/

The phoneme /Ü:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: ooze /u:z/, undo /'An'du:/,

/u:/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pool, boot

labio-dental: food lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: two, do, noon

post-alveolar, cacuminal: roof

f

iala to-alveolar: shoe, June ingual, medio-Hngual: youth

lingual, backlingual: cool, goose pharyngal (glottal): who

/u:/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: stoop

labio-dental: hoof lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: tooth

alveolar: booth, choose, moon, fool

palato-alveolar: douch, rouge, pooch

lingual, backlingual: duke

/u:/ may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis or nasal consonants. It is a stable vowel before fortis. Similarly to I'vJ diphthongization /u:/ with a glide is considered "vulgar". All speakers pronounce /u/ with a very wide glide after 1)1, e.g. use, new. It is stable after [1].

/з:/

The /з:/ phoneme occurs in initial and in terminal position: early /ia:h/, fur /fa:/, further /^з:бэ/, refer /rife:/.

/з:/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: purr, burr

labiodental: fir, verge lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thirst

alveolar: term, dirt, sir

post-alveolar (cacuminal): Röntgen

palato-alveolar: shirt

lingual, medio-lingual: year

lingual, backlingual: curb, girl pharyngal (glottal); her

/s:/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: kerb, worm

labio-dental: turf, serve lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: mirth

alveolar: hurt, bird

palato-alveolar: urge

lingual, backlingual: burg

Very open Ir.l is typical of old-fashioned speakers and affected RP.

The /э/ phoneme occurs in Initial and terminal position: about /31baut/, sofa /Iseufa/.

/э/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: banana, was

labio-dental: forsake, vocation lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: Thalia

alveolar: tobacco, domination

post-alveolar (cacuminal): racoon

palato-alveolar: Japan

lingual, medio-Iingual: yourself

lingual, backlingual: contain, galloon pharyngal (glottal): habitual

Ы may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: wallop

labio-dental: 0/ lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: Plymouth

alveolar: but, had, London

palato-alveolar: such

lingual, backlingual: bulwark

hi has two distinct allophones: 1) a closer one before velars, e.g. again; 2) an opener allophone in final position, similar to /л/, e.g. doctor, china, bitter, see above.

Idiolectal variations are connected with the degree of openness in terminal positions.

Questions

1. What is the basis for vowel allophonic differences? 2, In what position are vowels free from the influence of other sounds? 3. What vowel distributional characteristics are affected in a greater degree: qualitative or quantitative? 4. In what way are vowels influenced by neighbouring nasal consonants? 5. What are the factors that may af­fect vowel quantitative characteristics? 6. What is "positional length" of the vowels? 7. How is vowel quantity connected with accent?

8. Is vowel quality connected with the neutral vowel phoneme /э/?

9. Is vowel quantity connected with sentence stress and rhythm?

10. How do extralingu ist ic factors affect thelength <>f vowels? 11. What
is the difference between the English and the Russian unstressed vow­
els in terras of their qualitative characteristics? 12, How do adja­
cent consonants affect vowels? Which classificatory characteristics
of consonants are the most important in this respect?

Exercises

*1. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­teristics of the /i:/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) we, fever, theme, sea, deal, cheeks, reaches, yield, he, meals,
me, needn't;

(b) grebe, leave, sheath, breathe, eat, feel, leash, each, beak,
league, seem, spleen

*2, Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­teristics of the kl phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) mist, big, fish, thinks, thing, did, sit, lift, giver, rich, kill*
hid;

(b) him, if, live, myth, with, is, bill, tin, ridge, pick, big"]

3. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­istics of the /e/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) wet, met, vest, then, rest, left, nest, chest, jet, read, yes, get,
help;

(b) ebb, them, chef, death, says, tell, pen, fetch, ledge, lengthy

4. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /je/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) van, that, lamb, gnat, champ, jam, rank, Yankee, gas, ham;

(b) have, hath, match, badge, bag, sang

5. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the /<l7 phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b)
follow it.

(a) waft, mar, vast, tsar, lark, nasty, chance, jar, raft, yard, gar­
den;

(b) harm, starve, hearth, pass, bars, snarl, march, large

6. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the Inl phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) was, mop, vocative, thong, lot, not, chop, job, rob, yonder,
got, god, hot;

(b) mock, bomb, of, moth, was, doll, upon, scotch, dodge, fog,
wrong

7. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the h:l phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b)
follow it.

(a) war, more, vortex, thorn, saw, law, nor, chore, jaw, raw, your,
core, gore, horn;

(b) orb, storm, cough, north, horde, horse, all, thorn, gorge,
morgue

8. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /л/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) worry, much, vulgar, thunder, thus, luck, nut, just, rub", young,
gutter, hut;

(b) tub, come, love, doth, buzz, dull, none, much, judge, bug, young

9. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /u/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and

(b) follow it.

(a) wood, foot, soot, hook, July, rook, good, cook;

(b) room, puss, bull, putch, took

10. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the laii phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) woo, food, you, zoom, loop, noon, roof, chew, June, youth,
goose, who, zoo;

(b) broom, groove, booth, goose, choose, moon, stooge, duke, Bug

11. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the /э:/ phoneme. Deline the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

. (a) were, murky, virgin, thirst, lurch, nurse, Röntgen, church journey, year, girl, her;

(b) kerb, worm, serve, mirth, earl, burn, urge, quirk, burg 12. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac-

дшаi flirt foil и Phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede

fa) maroon, vocation, Thalia, lagoon, narrate, racoon, Japan, galloon, habitual;

(b) loathsome, of, Plymouth, jewel, letters, bulwark, agnostik Control Tasks

•I. Describe thOHophonic differences of the vowel phonemes Ik, i, e, аг, в, л,

v, a, u, it, a:, a/ in these words.

No. 1 /i:/

easily, sea, we, meals, cheaper, tree, fever, sleet, speaker, he, teach, keep, sheep

No. 2 hi

in, Ш, big, pit, silly, middle, shilling, thing, rivers, lived, hill

No. 3/e/

5^eI5'«i^{edl ten> ад1(1}' ^pence' ^weather> eleven, anyway, them, very, d, debt

No. 4 Ы

n_OTT4^pl£ⁿ! ^sad', ^ехаЯ¹' ^natural. imagine, shallow, strand, chan­nel, Jack, hats, pal, cab

No. 5 hi

bar, far, started, dancing, large, grass, half, harbour, card, yard

^d&^bh^h^W??' ^{S0Ud> nod}^> ^crop' ^с , dollar, bomb, John, gone, yonder, hot, pot No. 7 /a/ ^{sorts> shore}'^reÄ)rd' ^water>

' ^{S0Ud> nod}^> ^crop' ^соиёЫщ, shocked, gon d ht t

No. 8 /u/

good-bye^cook ^W°^Uld' ^t0°^{k> l00kedt SOOt}' ^room' ^should> y

No. 9 /u:/

e!too^l' ^move'^food' ^soon' ^rujned, cool, hoof, boot, chew, 136

No. 10 /л/

bus, must, nothing, funny, summer, instructor, luck, just, come, chuckle, wonderful, vulgar, thunder, thus, shut

No. И fr.f

bird, turned, girl, sir, heard, Sherlock, workers, Germany, churches, curly, nurse, dirt, year, murky, purr

No. 12 hi

along, about, upon, to see, perhaps, summer, August, London, desolate, condition, consist, speaker, letter, never, anxious, human

2. Transcribe these words. Present the rules for reading the vowel phonemes in bold type. Single out the words which are exceptions from thejules, j

holidays, Maria, forward, sightseeing, mouth, comfort, cafe, bil­liards, workers, Crusoe, Sherlock, Mathew, Earnest, forehead, pneu­monia, detached, bothers, head, varnished, Priestley, puzzling, pieces, asylum, record, Maugham, Friday, woodland, newspaper, taxis, unbelievable, purpose, unfortunately, awful, year, hotel, awkward, coughing, employ I ee

b) Diphthongs

At/

The phoneme /ei/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: aorta /eib:ta/, day /dei/.

/ei/ is preceded by the following consonants: labial

bilabial: pay, bay

labio-dental: fail lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thane

alveolar: tale, day

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ray

palato-alveolar: фаре, chain

lingual, medio-lingual: Yale pharyngal

lingual, backlingual: cake

pharyngal (glottal): hay

/ei/ is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: ape

labio-dental: pave lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: bathe

alveolar: ate, pace, laid, raise, ale, mane

palato-alveolar: age

lingual, backlingual: vague

/ei/, like other fronting diphthongs, is shortened before fortis, it results in the reduction of the first element, compare /lert — leid/.

The glide of /ei/ is obscured or may be of /э/ type.

There is some variation in the openness of the starting point. A more open quality is characteristic of low-prestige dialect forms, e. g. Cockney, Birmingham, Southern United States.

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