A) Paradigmatic aspect

Typology of meaning

If we combine meaning of equivalent words in 2 languages we can find 4 types of relations:

A= source language

B= target language

A=B	A<B	A>B	A=0
These relations are called “full” or “absolute” equivalents and the scope of meaning coincides absolutely	The word in the target language is narrower	The word in the target (English) language is wider	We don't have equivalents. These relations are called Linguistic lacunas. Such words can be translated into other languages but they are rendered not by a word by an explanatory translation or periphrasis. There are 2 resons for the existence of such lacunas: · the absence of the phenomenon (колхоз, 11+examination) · Purely linguistics factor – each language reflects reality in its own way. Linguistic picture of the world.
Chess = шахматы telegram = телеграмма	Лестница (B) = · a ladder, · stairs, · staircase, · fire-escape	Put (A) = · постелить, · повесить, · положить, · поставить	Сутки, кипяток, fortnight, hosiery

Sometimes words seem to have equivalents, but they have quite different meaning (accurate, champion - борец, decade)

Relations of partial equivalence are divided into inclusion and crossing.

· Inclusion

• Crossing – is connected with the existence with some specific meaning in each of the words (голос – voice) The Russian word may mean voice and vote. Открывать – open, find out, discover. Party – вечеринка, политическая партия.

Languages differ in semantic structures of the words. Some languages prefer more general meaning (English) and some prefer more concrete meanings (Russian).

The idea of motion.

He came by plane – прилетел самолётом

He came by bus – приехал на поезде

He cоme by foot – пришёл пешком

To cross the road – собака перебежала, человек перешел, уж переполз

b) Syntagmatic aspect (real speech usage)

Very often when the word is polysemantic. Its real meaning becomes clear only in the context. According to Amosova there are 3 types of contexts:

1. Lexical or pure lexical – when the meaning is actualized due to is combination with some neighboring word (dim light, dim idea. грубый голос или человек, smooth surface – гладкая поверхность or paste – однородная сбитая, smooth tongue – подвешенный язык)

2. Syntactical context – when the meaning of the word depends on the syntactic construction. It is used in syntactic context (make – делать, to make somebody do, take or take care of smth, фразовые глаголы). It also includes cases of transitive use of verbs it is characteristic of English only (!).to run household

3. Lexico-syntactical context – both lexical combinability and syntactic structures are important. The sun sets (intransitive use). He is setting potatoes (verbs + object). A peasant woman is setting her hens (changing lexical meaning).

Conclusion: all these contexts should be taken into consideration because they make the system of lexical units and their semantic potential more expressive.

Morphology.

Notional	Noun	+	+
Adjective	+	+
Numeral	+	+
Pronoun	+	+
Verb	+	+
Adverb	+	+
Functional	Preposition	+	+
Conjunction	+	+
Particle	+	+
Inbterjection	+	+
Article	+	-
Verb links	+	-/+

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