Тексты для дополнительного чтения. Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both

Fair trade

Retailing

Trade

Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both. Trade is also called commerce. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.

Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisation and division of labour, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading for other products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have a comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices between locations benefits both locations. Trading can also refer to the action performed by traders and other market agents in the financial markets.

Patterns of organizing and administering trade include: state control, laws regulating trade and establishing a framework, guild control, free enterprise, infrastructure in support of trade, technology in support of trade such as electronic commerce, vending machines.

Trade has taken place throughout much of recorded human history. There is evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint during the stone age. Materials used for creating jewelry were traded with Egypt since 3000 BC. Trading is important to the global economy. From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including China. Roman commerce allowed their empire to flourish and endure.

In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. It criticised Mercantilism, and argued that economic specialisation could benefit nations just as much as firms. In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that free trade might benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong, in the famous theory of comparative advantage.

The Great Depression was a major economic recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s. During this period, there was a great drop in trade and other economic indicators.The lack of free trade was considered by many as a principal cause of the depression. During the war, in 1944, 44 countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement, intended to prevent national trade barriers, to avoid depressions. It set up rules and institutions to regulate the international political economy. In 1947, 23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade.

Free trade advanced further in the late 20th century and early 2000s. In 1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal trade in goods and labour. January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization was created to facilitate free trade, by mandating mutual most favoured nation trading status between all signatories. EC was transformed into the European Union, which accomplished the Economic and Monnetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through introducing the Euro, and creating this way a real single market between 13 member states.

Notes:

1. commerce – (оптовая) торговля; коммерция

2. medium of exchange – средство обращения (функция денег, состоящая в обеспечении обмена одних товаров или услуг на другие)

3. multilateral trade – многосторонняя торговля

4. comparative advantage – сравнительное преимущество (способность страны или фирмы производить товары с меньшими альтернативными затратами, чем у конкурентов)

5. trader – трейдер, торговец (особ. оптовый)

6. «An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations» - «Исследование о природе и причинах богатства народов» (1776), труд Адама Смита (1723-90), шотландского экономиста и философа, одного из крупнейших представителей классической политэкономии

7. Mercantilism – меркантилизм (первая школа политэкономии)

8. free trade – беспошлинная торговля

9. The Great Depression – Великая депрессия, кризис 1929-1933 гг.

10. The Bretton Woods Agreement – Бреттон-Bудское соглашение о послевоенной валютной системе (1944 г.)

11. World Trade Organization – Всемирная торговая организация (ВТО)

12. EC (European Community) – Европейское сообщество (ЕС)

13. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – генеральное соглашение о тарифах и торговле, ГАТТ (1948 г.)

I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. European free market must unite European countries of which 13 have already signed the Free Trade Agreement.

2. Buying can be separated from selling or earning.

3. Free trade diffusion is also governed by close contacts and the hands-on relationships that are more likely with neighbors.

4. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade

5. Imported inputs that can be used in the production of the exported good.

III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов that, it, one.

1. It is the lack of free trade that is the principal cause of the depression

2. One goal of developing countries seeking an Regional Trade Agreement (RTA) with a large market, such as the EU or the United States, is simply to secure market access.

3. Market is a mechanism that allows trade.

4. One should know that barter is the direct exchange of goods and services.

5. In this way a country that is open to trade can benefit from free trade activities undertaken overseas.

IV. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.

1. Any individual may buy goods or products in large quantities from manufacturers or importers and sell smaller quantities to the end-user and when he does so he becomes a “retailer”.

2. The aim of economic specialisation is to benefit nations just as much as firms.

3. The objective is to promote development, strengthen regional integration, and ensure compatibility with WTO principles.

4. The European Fair Trade Association is to promote fair trade and to make fair trade importing more efficient and effective.

5. Because a new entrant has to build plants in both countries (not just one), the agreement acts as a barrier to competition that favored insiders.

V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. Trade the private business associations control to exclude new entrants is known as guild control.

2. High tariff rates, restrictions on services entry, and controls on agriculture the economists distinguish impede trade and keep transactions costs high.

3. Trader must know the actions other market agents perform in the financial markets.

4. A strategy of export-led growth East Asia generally followed resulted in elimination of anti-export bias and sustained nondiscriminatory liberalization.

5. The economic growth this year depends on barriers European Union lifted to internal trade in goods and labour last year.

VI. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русcкий язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1. Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history.

2. To measure the role of imported intermediates in trade, we calculate an index of vertical specialization, which measures the share of the value added of an export accounted for by imported intermediate inputs.

3. A customer may have to pay more if the seller determines that he or she is willing to.

4. Most-favored-nation (MFN; i.e., nondiscriminatory) liberalization, which creates more trade, is the fastest and most efficient way to increase intraregional trade.

5. Roman commerce allowed their empire to flourish and endure.

VII. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

VIII. Прочитайте текст и ответьте письменно на вопросы:

1. What is trade?

2. What reasons does trade exist for?

3. What do patterns of organizing and administering trade include?

4. How long is trade believed to have taken place?

5. What is the basic difference between barter and trade through a medium of exchange?

Вариант 4

Retailing consists of the sale of goods from a fixed location such as a department store in small or individual lots for direct consumption by the purchaser. Retailing may include subordinated services, such as delivery. Purchasers may be individuals or businesses. In commerce, a retailer buys goods or products in large quantities from manufacturers or importers, either directly or through a wholesaler, and then sells smaller quantities to the end-user. Retail establishments are often called shops or stores. Retailers are at the end of the supply chain.

Retail comes from the French word retaillier which refers to “cutting off, clip and divide.” Like the French, the word retail in both Dutch and German also refer to sale of small quantities or items.

There are three major types of retailing. The first is the market, a physical location where buyers and sellers converge. Usually this is done on town squares, sidewalks or designated streets and may involve the construction of temporary structures (market stalls). The second form is shop or store trading. Some shops use counter-service, where goods are out of reach of buyers, and must be obtained from the seller. This type of retail is common for small expensive items (e.g. jewelry) and controlled items like medicine and liquor. Self-service, where goods may be handled and examined prior to purchase, has become more common since the Twentieth Century. A third form of retail is virtual retail, where products are ordered via mail, telephone or online without having been examined physically but instead in a catalog, on television or on a website. Sometimes this kind of retailing replicates existing retail types such as online shops or virtual marketplaces such as eBay or Amazon.

Buildings for retail have changed considerably over time. Market halls were constructed in the Middle Ages, which were essentially just covered marketplaces. The first shops in the modern sense used to deal with just one type of article, and usually adjoined the producer (baker, tailor, cobbler). In the nineteenth century, in France, arcades were invented. From this there soon developed, still in France, the notion of a large store of one ownership with many counters, each dealing with a different kind of article was invented; it was called a department store. In the 1920’s the first supermarket opened in the United States, heralding in a new era of retail: self-service. Around the same time the first shopping mall was constructed which incorporated elements from both the arcade and the department store. A mall consists of several department stores linked by arcades (many of whose shops are owned by the same firm under different names). All the stores rent their space from the mall owner. The mall has had a considerable impact on the retail structure and urban development in the United States.

In addition to the enclosed malls, there are also strip malls. These are often connected to supermarkets or big box stores. A recent development is a very large shop called a superstore. These are sometimes located as stand-alone outlets, but more commonly are part of a strip mall or retail park.

Local shops can be known as brick and mortar stores in the United States. Many shops are part of a chain: a number of similar shops with the same name selling the same products in different locations. The shops may be owned by one company, or there may be a franchising company that has franchising agreements with the shop owners (see also restaurant chain).

Notes:

1. retailing – розничная торговля

2. department store – универсальный магазин, универмаг

3. wholesaler – оптовик, оптовый торговец

4. end-user – конечный (непосредственный) потребитель

5. e.g. (exempli gratia) – например, напр.

6. via – через

5. arcade – аркада, пассаж

6. shopping mall – торговый пассаж

7. mall – галерея магазинов

8. strip mall – длинное одноэтажное здание, разделенное на секции, в которых размещаются магазины

9. box store – магазин складского типа, склад самообслуживания

10. superstore – супермаркет

11. stand-alone – автономный, отдельный, не входящий в систему

12. outlet – торговая точка; магазин

13. franchising – договор коммерческой концессии, франчайзинг

I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Buildings for retail have changed considerably over time.

2. Some shops use counter-service, where goods are out of reach of buyers, and must be obtained from the seller.

3. In Western countries, retail prices are often so-called psychological prices or odd prices.

4. Market halls were constructed in the Middle Ages, which were essentially just covered marketplaces.

5. It is important to bear in mind that an agreement may be successful even if the propensity for members to trade among themselves does not increase markedly.

III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов that, it, one.

1. It is much less administrative paperwork that is considered to be one of the advantages of the limited liability company.

2. As one would expect, the choice of goods is much greater when there is competition.

3. The first parameter measures the impact of the agreement on total imports; a negative value for this parameter suggests that for the agreement concerned, the level of trade between a member and any other country is less than the normal level of trade that one could expect.

4. Sometimes a shopping street has a partial or full roof to protect customers from precipitation.

5. Thus even if an agreement as a whole creates trade, it is important that there are mechanisms to ensure that all members benefit.

IV. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.

1. Many shops are part of a chain: a number of similar shops with the same name selling the same products in different locations.

2. Buildings for retail have changed considerably over time.

3. Often the objectives in an agreement are defined by foreign ministers or even prime ministers, while the way that those objectives are to be carried out is determined later in negotiations between ministries.

4. Most retailers have employees learn facing; a tool used to create the look of a perfectly-stocked store (even when it's not).

5. The commission’s role in the disputes is to see that enforcement of existing laws takes place.

V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. Prices the retailer can charge are often low and allow customers to buy different goods.

2. High levels of trade mutual respect and more harmonious relation may stimulate raise the cost of political disputes and military conflict.

3. Goods the public donates to give-away shops should be taken for free.

4. The process of reorienting trade to the world economy socialist countries across the world started resulted in their economic systems restructured.

5. Online retailing can be used to sell things we want to consume.

VI. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1. The shopping malls have grown to become one of the largest retail establishments in the United States.

2. In a Free Trade Area, members eliminate barriers to trade in goods (and increasingly services) among members, but each member is free to maintain different barriers on nonmembers.

3. In other cases, especially in the case of a nonprofit shop, the public donates goods to the shop to be sold.

4. The retailer decided to charge higher prices to some customers and lower prices to others.

5. Several agreements with WTO members have yet to be reported to the organization.

VII. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

VIII. Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What does retailing consist of?

2. How are retail establishments often called?

3. What are three major types of retailing?

4. When and where did the first supermarket appear?

5. How can shops be classified?

Вариант 5

Fair trade is an organized social movement which promotes standards for international labour, environmentalism, and social policy in areas related to production of Fairtrade labelled and unlabelled goods. The movement focuses in particular on exports from developing countries to developed countries.

Fair trade’s strategic intent is to deliberately work with marginalised producers and workers in order to help them move from a position of vulnerability to security and economic self-sufficiency. It also aims at empowering them to become stakeholders in their own organizations and actively play a wider role in the global arena to achieve greater equity in international trade.Fair trade proponents include a wide array of international religious, development aid, social and environmental organizations.

The most widely recognized definition of fair trade was created by FINE, an informal Association of the four main fair trade networks. According to this definition, fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, which seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers - especially in the South. Fair trade organizations, backed by consumers, are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.

Fair trade advocates generally support the following principles and practices in trading relationships: creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers, transparency and accountability, capacity building, payment of a fair price, gender equity, working conditions and environmental protection. A price that covers not only the costs of production but enables production which is socially just and environmentally sound management is known as a fair price. In the regional or local context it is one that has been agreed through dialogue and participation.

Most fair trade import organizations are members or certified by one or several national or international federations. These federations coordinate, promote and facilitate the work of fair trade organizations.

Fairtrade labeling is a certification system designed to allow consumers to identify goods which meet agreed standards. Overseen by a standard-setting body and a certification body, the system involves independent auditing of producers and traders to ensure the agreed standards are met. Fairtrade certification guarantees not only fair prices, but also the principles of ethical purchasing. These principles include adherence to ILO agreements such as those banning child and slave labour, guaranteeing a safe workplace and the right to unionise, adherence to the United Nations charter of human rights, a fair price that covers the cost of production and facilitates social development, and protection and conservation of the environment. The Fairtrade certification system also promotes long-term business relationships between buyers and sellers, crop prefinancing and greater transparency throughout the supply chain.

Notes:

1.fair trade – торговля на основе взаимной выгоды, «справедливая торговля»

2. environmentalism – экологизм, энвайронментализм (учение об окружающей среде)

3. stakeholders – заинтересованные стороны; заинтересованные круги

4. trading conditions – торговая конъюнктура

5. fair price – настоящая цена

6. ILO (International Labour Organization) – МОТ, Международная организация труда (специализированный орган ООН)

7. supply chain – канал поставок

8. FINE – ФИНЕ – неформальная ассоциация четырех ведущих организаций, связанных с торговлей на основе взаимной выгоды (ФЛО, ИФАТ, НЕВС, ЕФТА).

I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. A price that covers not only the costs of production but enables production which is socially just is known as a fair price.

2. Large corporations growing beyond national boundaries may receive a type of subsidy besides being empowered to play a wider role in the global arena.

3. The goods exported from the Third and Second Worlds are often subjected to trade barriers.

4. Fair trade specifies how the work of men and women would be valued and rewarded.

5. Many of these issues have implications for trade, although the precise mechanisms by which trade is affected are not always well defined.

III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

1. Fair price in the regional or local context is one that has been agreed through dialogue and participation.

2. Following private investors’ retreat from equity and bond investments in U.S. dollar-denominated assets, the central banks of these countries have become one of the most important sources of financing for the large U.S. current account deficit.

3. It is due to producers’ independence.

4. It is the commodity crisis that has encouraged a price race to the bottom.

5. Such a rise would have important negative effects on all oil-importing economies, particularly those of low- and middle-income countries that face current account constraints.

IV. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.

1. The International Fair Trade Association (IFAT) has nearly 300 member organizations in over 60 countries.

2. In Europe more resolute steps to redress government deficits and to create the fiscal room necessary to deal with the fiscal consequences of aging will be necessary if long-term interest rates are to remain low.

3. Some criteria have to be fulfilled under Fair Trade to protect it from abuse.

4. Should these countries decide to rebalance their reserve portfolio by slowing the pace at which they accumulate dollar-denominated reserves, either downward pressures on the dollar will accentuate, or interest rates will have to rise in order to attract sufficient private capital inflow.

5. Each person is always paid for their contribution to the production process.

V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. Farmers’ decisions about how much to sell depend on the price they receive for their harvest.

2. The principles and practices in trading relationships fair trade advocates support include creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers, transparency and accountability, capacity building, payment of a fair price, gender equity, working conditions and environmental protection.

3. Fairtrade labelling is a certification system a consumer can use to identify goods which meet agreed standards.

4. Long-term business relationships the Fairtrade certification system promotes contribute to business contacts between buyers and sellers, social development, protection and conservation of the environment.

5. The way the regulation of international trade is done will show the efficiency of the government.

VI. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1. Fair trade involves transparent management and commercial relations to deal fairly and respectfully with trading partners.

2. Patterns of regional integration tend to confirm the view that usually trade has preceded trade agreements.

3. Fair trade relationships provide continuity, during which producers and their marketing organizations can improve their management skills and their access to new markets.

4. Because countries begin with broadly similar production and export structures, the scope for using regional trade to establish patterns of specialization and diversification in manufacturing production is limited.

5. EFTA’s (The European Fair Trade Association) goal is to promote fair trade and to make fair trade importing more efficient and effective.

VII. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите следующий текст.

VIII. Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What are the purposes of fair trade?

2. What organizations are the proponents of fair trade?

3. What principles and practices are generally supported in trading relationships?

4. When was the current fair trade movement shaped in Europe?

5. What is known as a Fairtrade labelling?

Дата добавления: 2017-01-14