Parapsychology

by Gertrude R. Schmeidler

Psychical research, the area of science that studies extrasensory perception, psychokinesis, and such related topics as spiritual survival after bodily death.

In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was founded in London. But the raw material of para­psychology studies had been reported from the earliest days. The witch of Endor saw the spirit of the dead Samuel. Croesus, King of Lydia, tested the Delphic sibyl by sending a messenger to ask what the King was doing on a certain day. Croesus tried to trick her by carrying out a bizarre, unkingly act – cooking a tortoise and lamb in a bronze caldron – but the sibyl described it. Socrates’ «Daemon» told him one morning toavoid his usual route in Athens; and that day, when Socrates would otherwise have walked there, a dangerous herd of wild pigs ran through the city street. Saint John Bosco twice, as a schoolboy, dreamed the Latin assignment that would be dictated next day. Pope Pius V saw and described, in Rome, the Battle of Lepanto while it occurred. Other people have reported similar extraordinary events, such as hauntings, poltergeists, and levitations.

The SPR’s purpose was «to examine without preju­dice or prepossession and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or supposed, which appear to be inexplicable on any generally recognized hypothesis». It included such dignitaries as Lord Balfour, Henry Sidgwick, Sir William Crookes, Charles Richet, Lord Rayleigh, and Hans Driesch. Related societies were soon founded, such as the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) with Simon Newcomb and William James.

The SPR used three major techniques of investigation: collecting and critically analyzing «spontaneous cases» studying intensively anyone who seemed especially gifted (psychics, sensitives, mediums), and experimentation. Spontaneous cases were examined as in a law court: independent evidence statements about what had occurred was sought, and both confirming and disconfirming statements were published. Many cases were well confirmed, with independent witnesses stating the experience was described before confirmation was known and with written evidence of the confirmation.

Studies of special sensitives yielded confirmation for at least some psychic claims. Face-to-face sittings are often suspicious, because the sitter may inadvertently give cues; but some sessions produced accurate infor­mation not known to the sitter – for example, the size and location of someone else’s book that contained a diagram of Indo-European languages.

Modern research avoids cues by «double-blind» methods in which a note taker holds «proxy sittings» for several individuals, all unknown to him. Copies of all transcripts (coded for anonymity) are sent to each «absent sitter» who marks each scorable statement true or false. Stati­stical analysis shows if more checks are given to the appropriate transcripts.

Experimentation is now the major method of parapsychological research. Studies of telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition use stringent controls to confirm that ESP can occur.

Formal experimentation of psychokinesis (PK) was initiated by J.B. Rhine, who first studied whether a subject could, by «willingly» control the fall of dice. Since no die is perfect, ail faces of the die must be «willed» equal numbers of times for good research. Also, since muscular control is possible for the first two bounces, an apparatus must ensure that the die bounces many times. Even with these conditions, however, extra-chance results appear, especially at the beginning of a series. The systematic decline of scores after the beginning of a series is one of the striking effects. Other procedures include «placement» where discs are released from a central mechanism and the subject hopes they will fall to the right or left, and tests of possible influence on the temperature of a distant thermometer or the decay curve of a magnetic field. PK effects in the laboratory are usually so slight that they demand sensitive equipment or thousands of trials; but the fact that they occur is of major theoretical importance. Some few well-controlled sittings with psychics and observations of poltergeists suggest that massive psychokinetic effects can also be produced.

Research in other areas of parapsychology is less clear. However, some work on psychic healing has begun, as when Grad and his colleagues inflicted surgical wounds on mice and found faster recovery if a «healer» held their cages. Similarly, Watkins and Watkins found faster recovery from anesthesia for animals whom certain «talented» subjects tried to wake. This may be a special case of psychokinesis.

The present status of parapsychology is curious. There are few specialists in the area. The Parapsychological Association (which limits membership to serious workers) has only about 200 members, although it is affiliated with the prestigious American Association for the Advancement of Science. Most of the research is published in the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research or in the Journal of Parapsychology. Popular writings are common but spread misinformation as well as information. In short, parapsychology is well establishedbut not yet accepted by the academic community as a whole.

Дата добавления: 2017-02-01