Synonyms

Разработал

I. Учебные вопросы

Разработал

Старший преподаватель кафедры

капитан внутренней службы В.В.Сай

”______” _______________ 2010 года

ЗАДАНИЕ К ПРАКТИЧЕСКОМУ ЗАНЯТИЮ.

по дисциплине «Дорожно-транспортная экспертиза»

Тема 9. Исследование технической возможности предотвратить наезд транспортного средства на пешехода при ограниченной обзорности и видимости.

1. Расчет технической возможности предотвратить наезд транспортного средства на пешехода в условиях ограниченной видимости.

Литература:

1. Домке Э. Р. Расследование и экспертиза дорожно – транспортных происшествий – М: Издательский центр «Академия» 2009 – 288 с.)

2. Использование специальных познаний в расследовании дорожно – транспортных происшествий /Под общей редакцией Кривицкого А. М., Шапорва Ю. И. – Минск: Харвест, 2004 –128 с.)

Дополнительная:

1.Балакин В.Д. Экспертиза дорожно-транспортных происшествий. – Омск Издательство СибАДИ, 2005 – 137 с

2. Илларионов В. А. Задачи и примеры по экспертизе ДТП: Учебное пособие для вузов – М: издательство МАДИ 1990 – 68с

3.Суворов Ю. Б. Судебная дорожно-транспортная экспертиза: Судебно-экспертная оценка действий водителей и других, ответственных за обеспечение безопасности дорожного движения, на участках ДТП. Учебное пособие для вузов. – М.: Экзамен: Право и закон 2004 –208 с.

Старший преподаватель кафедры

капитан внутренней службы В.В.Сай

”______” _______________ 2010 года

Synonyms traditionally describe words different in sound form but identical on meaning.

Critics: it seem impossible to speak identical words fully.

1) it’s hardly possible what polysemantic words could have identical meaning.

For example: look synonyms watch and observe, but in other meanings synonym see appear.

2) it’s seem impossible to speak identical lexical meaning. Only denotational component may be described as identical: to die – to pass away, to begin – to commence. The connotational component or stylistic reference of this words is different. Only denotational component makes words synonymic.

3) It does not seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criteria of synonymy. This identity is very rarely, only in monosemantic words.

Cases of complete synonymy a very few and confined (ограничен) only by terms.

Thus it seem necessary to modify the traditional definition of synonyms and to formulate it as follow: synonyms are words different in sound form but similar at their denotational meanings.

There are some criteria for synonymy.

1) Coincidence of meaning

2) Coincidence of syntactic distribution

3) Coincidence of lexical distribution

4) Partial interchangeability – it’s applied in modern research

First three criteria are clear. About fourth criteria:

Synonyms are defined as words which interchangeable at list in some context without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.

This criteria may be criticized because every attempt to apply it to a group of synonyms may lead to inevitable conclusion that either there are very few synonyms or they are not interchangeable: pretty – good looking – handsome – beautiful. Yet even this words are far from being totally interchangeable. At first glance they seem to be identical, because they describe human beauty. But handsome is not pretty, and pretty is not necessary handsome.

It’s difficult to accept interchangeability as a criteria of synonymy. Synonyms are not, can not and should not be interchangeable if they were became useless.

This criteria is not valid.

Synonyms may be effectely studied only within synonymic group in which there is so called synonymic dominant. It’s word which is stylistically neutral, frequently used in speech, have wide combinability with different classes of words, which have common meaning and doesn’t have any connotations. For example: to ate – to help – to assist, cardinal – chief – principal – primary – main. (жирным выделены synonymic dominants).

Classification.

Academician Vinogradov, 3 types of synonyms:

1) ideographic – words convey the same concept but different in shades of meaning: mistake – error – slip – laps.

2) stylistic – different in stylistic characteristic: select – choose.

3) Absolute – in all their shades of meaning and stylistic characteristic identical. Very rare. My be terms.

Relative synonyms (big – large, like – love – adore).

Contextual synonyms – meanings coincides in particular distribution (to buy – to get). Bear – suffer – stunt – they are semantically different and can not be interchangeable, but in negative form they are synonyms.

A more modern and more effective approach to classification may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations.

It seems convenient to classify connotation by which synonyms differ rather than synonyms themselves.

It may be possible to trace distinctive features in their semantic structure.

Types of connotations:

1) Connotation of degree or intensity: to surprise – to astonish – to amaze – to astound; to satisfy – to please – to content – to delight.

2) Duration connotation: to stare – to glare – to glance – to peep.

3) Emotive connotation and differentiated from other words of the group by the nature of emotion: to stare – to glare – to glance; to trample – to shave – to shadow – to shake; to love – to admire – to above – to worship.

4) The evaluative connotation – conveys speaker’s attitude to the referent smth or smth labeling it as good or bad: well known – famous – notorious – covered – celebrated.

5) Causative connotation: to sparkle (positive cause) – to glitter (negative cause), to shave – to shadow.

6) The connotation of manner: to stroll – to stride – to throat – to passé – to stagger – to stumble. All denote different manner of walking.

7) Stylistic connotation – they stand apart for two reasons. Some scholars not regard stylistic characteristic as connotive component. Stylistic characteristic subject of two other classification.

This classification is more valid because we make feel a slide difference in the shade of meanings.

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