Subsidiary Variants of English Consonant Phonemes

Allophonic variants of consonants should be analysed from the view­point of CV, VC, CC connections. There are some rules to this effect that can be formulated in the following way.

1. In initial prevocalic position the number of allophones of consonant phonemes is adequate to the number of vowels that follow them.

2. Voiced consonants in initial position are gradually voiced (strong
end, weak beginning).

3. In terminal post-vocalic position the number of allophones is adequate to the number of vowels that precede them.

4. Voiced consonants in terminal position are gradually devoiced (weak end, strong beginning).

5. In medial position voiced consonants are fully voiced.

6. Consonants are shorter in initial position than in terminal position.

7. Similar voiced consonants are shorter before voiceless, longer be­fore voiced and the longest in free terminal position.

8. In CC transition plosive consonants may lose their plosion or its character may be modified: loss of plosion, nasal, lateral plosion.

9. In CC transition constrictive consonants may be pronounced with terminated constriction under the influence of the following consonant.

10. Plosive constrictives and affricates may be modified by the influ­ence of nasal /m, n/, palato-alveolar /j/, interdental /θ, ð/, post-alveolar /r/, bilabial /w/, etc.

Given below are the most important allophonic variants of English consonant phonemes.

/p/

1. Aspirated: pass, picture, Peter. Aspiration may also be heard in final position: top.

2. Modified by the following vowel: pea, pit, pet, pat, palm, pot, paw, pun, put, pool, purr, parade, pay, pie, pound, poach, peer, pore, poor.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: lip, leap, step, clap, harp, hip, thorp, stoop, up, chirp, wallop, tape, type, hope, sharp.

4. No release: supped, what place.

5. Release partly lost: spleen, splendid, helps, step, hop, top.

6. Lateral release: people, couple, apple.

7. Nasal release: open, happen.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: pewter;

/r/ — post-alveolar: price, surprise, press;

/θ/ — dental: depth;

/w/ — labialized: Pueblo.

/b/

1. Modified by the following vowel: bit, bet, bad, bar, box, bought, but, book, boot, burr, banana, bay, by, bow, boy, beer, boor, bore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: grebe, nib, ebb, cab, garb, mob, orb, tube, tub, verb, hubbub, babe, imbibe, globe.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: labour.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: balm, bee, bet;

(b) finally: ebb, nib, cab.

5. No release: rubbed, sob bitterly, ebbed, stabbed.

6. Lateral release: able, table, bible.

7. Nasal release: ribbon, stubborn.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: beauty;

/r/ — post-alveolar: bright;

/1/ — released laterally: blight;

/w/ — labialized: Buenos Aires

/t/

1. Aspirated: table, time, Tim. Aspiration may also be heard in the finalposition, e.g. rat.

2. Modified by the following vowel: tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore, tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, toy, tow, tear, tour.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: eat, it, ate, at, art, hot, ought, hurt, put, host, but, eight, write, rout, wrote, adroit, licentiate.

4. No release: stop talking.

5.Release partly lost: strong, straw, eats, hoots.

6.Lateral release: bottle, little.

7.Nasal release: written, beaten.

8.Modified by /j/ — palatalized: tube, tuition;

/w/ — labialized: twice, twenty;

/r/ — post-alveolar: try, tree, actress;

/ð/— dental: at the;

/θ/— dental: breadth.

Generally preglottalized [?t] when syllable final, before consonants, e.g. hatless.

In colloquial speech /tju:/ may be reduced to /tς/: /tju:n/ -> /tςju:n/. Intervocalic /t/ is frequently realised as a brief voiceless tap, e.g. better.

/d/

1.Modified by the following vowel: deep, did, dead, dad, darn, dog, door, duck, do, dirt, domination, day, die, down, daily, dome, dear, dare, dour.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: deed, did, dead, dad, hard, odd, horde, hood, brood, bud, bird, made, ride, crowd, annoyed, rode, beard, spared, bored, goured.

3.Fully voiced between voiced sounds: udder, ready.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: do, done, down;

(b) finally: hard, hood, mid.

5. No release: good day, what day, walk down.

6. Lateral release: middle, beadle.

7. Nasal release: garden.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: duty;

/r/ — post-alveolar: dry, dress;

/ð/ — dental: read those books.

In colloquial speech /dj/ may be reduced to /dЗ/.

/k/

1. Aspirated: Kate, kit, come; aspiration may also be heard in the final position, e.g. rock.

2. Modified by the following vowel: key, kin, kept, cap, car, cot, core, cup, cook, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care, cord.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: beak, pick, wreck, back, dark, lock, fork, book, duke, duck, quirk, bulwark, take, like, hoik, oak.

4. No release: picked, pecked, liked, act, cook clean, took Kate.

5. Release partly lost: sky, school.

6. Lateral release: tickle, vocal, cycle.

7. Nasal release: taken, bacon, thicken.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: cute;

/w/ — labialized: quake, quag, quaff;

/r/ — post-alveolar: cry, crab, cranberry;

/ð/ — dental: take them, pick those books.

Generally preglottalized [?k] when syllable final, before consonants; e.g. duck soup.

The velar closure for /k, g/ is advanced before front vowels, e.g. keen, gees; retracted before back vowels, e.g. coup, goose.

/g/

1. Modified by the following vowel: geese, give, get, gas, garden, got, gore, gutter, good, goose, gilt, galloon, gay guy, gown, goitre, go, gear, garish, gourd.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: league, fig, beg, fog, morgue, big, burg, plague, rogue.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: agony, again.

4.Partly devoiced (a) initially: go, gain, guard;

(b) finally: big, beg, league.

5. No release: begged, plagued, big, game.

6. Lateral release: eagle, giggle.

7. Nasal release: dragon.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: cute;

/h/ — post-alveolar: great, agree;

/ð/ — dental: beg them;

/w/ — labialized: Gwendolen.

/t ς /

1. Modified by the following vowel: cheese, chin, chest, champ, chaff, chop, chore, chough, chewing, chew, church, cherubic, chain, child, chow, choice, choke, cheer, chair, chewer.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: each, itch, fetch, match, march, scotch, scorch, pouch, much, search, such, aitch, coach.

3. Shortened in terminal position, when followed by /t/: reached, hitched, fetched, matched, marched, searched, touched.

4. Lateral release: Rachel, satchel.

5. Nasal release: fortune, question.

6. Modified by /r/ — post-alveolar: teach Robert;

/ð/ — dental: teach them;

/tς/ may be preglottalized [?tς], e.g. touch.

/dЗ/

1. Modified by the following vowel: gee, gibber, jet, jam, jar, Job, jaw, just, July, Jew, journey, Japan, jail, jibe, joule, joy, Joe, jeer, jurist.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: liege, ridge, ledge, badge, large, lodge, gorge, Googe, stooge, judge, urge, age, oblige, gouge, voyage,
doge.

3. Shortened in terminal position, when followed by /d/: obliged, forged, urged.

4. Lateral release: cudgel.

5. Nasal release: region.

6. Modified by /r/ — post-alveolar: urge Robert;

/ð/ — dental: judge them.

/dЗ/ is voiced between voiced sounds, e.g. hedges, partly devoiced in other positions, e.g. gin, badge.

/f/

1. Modified by the following vowel: fee, fill, fence, fan, far, fox, four, fuss, foot, food, fir, forsake, fail, fine, fowl, foil, foe, fear, fare, fore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: leaf, if, chief, giraffe, chaff, off, cough, half, rough, turf, safe, life, loaf, coif.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: thief — feet.

4. Lateral release: rifle, trifle.

5. Nasal release: often.

6. Modified by /j/: few;

/r/: fry;

/l/: flag;

/m/: lymph.

The exact point of contact may vary: it is more forward on the lip for front vowels, and retracted for back vowels, e.g. fee, far.

/v/

1. Modified by the following vowel: veal, vicar, vest, vaccine, van­tage, vocative, vortex, vulgar, vocation, voodoo, virgin, veil, vile, vow, voyage, vote, veer, variance.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: leave, live, have, starve, of, groove, love, serve, shave, five, rove.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: veal — eve.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: vile;

(b) finally: live.

5. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: ever.

6. Partly devoiced (a) initially: very;

(b) finally: leave.

7. Lateral release: devil.

8. Nasal release: even.

9. Modified by /1/: Vladivostok;

/r/: Vryburg /'vraıbз:g/ (г. Фрайбург);

/j/: view.

Place variation as for /f/.

/θ/

1. Modified by the following vowel: theme, thin, therapy, thank, thong, thunder, thirteen, Thalia, thane, thigh, thousand, thole, theatre

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: wreath, myths, death, maths, laths, moths, fourths, tooths, births, faiths, south, Baths, paths.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: moth — theme.

4. Nasal release: earthen, lengthen.

5. Modified by /r/: three;

/w/: thwart;

/j/: fourth year;

/n/: south night.

6.May be interdental in energetic articulation.

/ð/

1. Modified by the following vowel: thee, this, then, that, thus, they, thy, though, there.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: breathe, with, booth, bathe, lithe, mouth (v), loathe.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: breathe — these.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: these;

(b) finally: writhe.

5. Fully voiced: heathen.

6. Nasal release: rhythm.

7. Modified by /r/, with Rose;

/j/: loathe you;

/n/: bathe Nell.

8. Initial /ð/ in one of the most frequent phonetic contexts: the, this.

/s/

1. Modified by the following vowel: see, sit, set, sat, sergeant, sock, saw, suffer, soot, soon, sir, surround, say, sigh, sow, soil, so, sear, Sarah, sourdine, sore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: niece, kiss, Bess, ass, case, mice, nurse, verse, pass, purpose, bus, loss, loose, purse, course.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: sick — kiss.

4. Lateral release: whistle, castle.

5. Nasal release: listen, some /sm/.

6. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: suit, suicide;

/(k)w/ — labialized: squirm, squish;

/n/ — nasalized: snarl, snare;

/m/ — nasalized: smoky, smite;

/ð/ — dental: miss the train.

In present-day RP the increasing dominance of /su:/ over /sj/ is ob­served, e.g. suit /su:t/.

/z/

1. Modified by the following vowel: zeal, zinc, zest, Zambia, Zane, Zora, Zutphen, zoological, Zoo, zirconium, Zealand, zymosis, zounds, zone, zero, Zara.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: cheese, is, says, has, bars, was,
pause, choose, buzz, hers, letters, maize, rise, house (v), poise, rose, hears,
theirs, oars.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: zoo — oars.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: zoo, zest;

(b) finally: houses, rise.

5. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: reason, season.

6. Lateral release: teasel, measles.

7. Nasal release: socialism, reason.

8.Modified by /ð/ — dental: is the, is this;

/j/ — palatalized: is yet;

/n/ — nasalized: buns, pines.

/s, z/ can be assimilated to /ς, 3/ before palatal and palato-alveolar con­sonants, e.g. gas showroom /gæ'ςəuru:m/, are these yours /ə 'ði:3 '3o:z/.

/ς/

1. Modified by the following vowel: she, ship, shelf, shall, shaft, shop, shore, shut, should, sheen, shirt, shallot, shape, shy, shower, show, sheer, share, sure.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: clash, fish, fresh, smash, marsh, wash, push, rush, douche.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf.: ship — fish.

4. Lateral release: special.

5.Nasal release: station, nation.

6.Modified by /ð/ — dental: wash them;

/j/ — palatalized: push your table;

/r/ — post-alveolar: shriek, shred;

/w/ — labialized: fresh water;

/m/ — nasalized: home ship, warm shop.

/З/

Occurs only in medial position, between vowels, e.g. measure.

It may be syllable-initial and syllable-final in recent French loan­words, e.g. garage /'gæra:З/, beige /beıЗ/.

1. Modified by the following vowel: gigue, Genevieve, jabot, gen­darme, jongleur, jupe.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: prestige, barrage, rouge, beige.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. jupe — rouge.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: jabot;

(b) finally: rouge.

5. Fully voiced: asure.

6. Lateral release: usual.

7. Nasal release: decision.

8. Modified by /j/: rouge your face;

/n/: sponge, orange, strange.

/h/

Occurs only before vowels. In phonetic terms /h/ can be considered a type of a voiceless vowel.

1. Modified by the following vowel: he, hit, help, happy, half, hip, horn, hut, hook, who, her, habitual, hay, high, how, hoist, hoe, hear, hare, liouri.

2.Voiced between vowels and voiced sounds: behind, inhabit, boy­
hood.

There are as many allophones of /h/ as there are vowels in English, the articulators are always in the position for the following vowel sound.

/w/

Never occurs finally.

1. Modified by the following vowel: we, wit, wax, waft, was, war, worry, wood, woo, were, way, why, wow, woe, weir, ware, wooer.

2. Devoiced following /t, k/ in stressed syllables: tweed, twenty, twice, quite, queen.

There may be complete devoicing, and /w/ will be realized as a voice­less, labial-velar fricative / м /.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: awake, dwale, dwindle.

/j/

Occurs only before vowels.

1. Modified by the following vowel: ye, Yiddish, yes, Yankee, yard, yonder, your, young, you, youth, year, yourself, yale, yoicks, yokel, Yare.

2. Devoiced by the preceding consonants /p, t, k/: piano, tube, cu­
rious.

3. Nasalized: mule, munition, new.

4. The sequences /tj, dj/ are often realized as /tς, dЗ/, e.g. won't you
/'wəuntςu:/, couldn’t you /'kudntςu:/.

It may also be heard in stressed syllables in "lazy speech", e.g. tune /tςu:n/, dune /d3u:n/.

/r/

1. Modified by the following vowel: read, rid, rest, rat, raft, rock, raw, rust, rook, roof, Rontgen, racoon, ray, right, row, roister, rear, rare, rural, roar.

2. The initial clusters /tr, dr/ are realized as post-alveolar affricates.

3. In initial clusters, after fortis stops, /r/ is a completely voiceless
post-alveolar fricative, e.g. pressed, present. In the clusters /spr, str, skr/
friction is not heard, but there may be devoicing: spread, scratch. In
unstressed syllables and after fricatives /r/ is partly devoiced, post-alve­olar fricative, e.g. Fred, shred.

According to the /r/ distribution the dialects of English can be divided into two groups: rhotic and non-rhotic. In rhotic dialects /r/ is pronounced in all contexts, these dialects include the majority of American English varieties — including GA and Canadian dialects (including the West of England, especially the rural areas, Scots and Irish).

In non-rhotic dialects /r/ is not pronounced before a consonant or pause. These dialects include most of those spoken in England and Wales; Amer­ican English spoken in the Southern and Eastern States, Australian, South African and most New Zealand.

In non-rhotic varieties /r/ is pronounced in word boundaries, e.g. tar and feather /'ta:r ən 'feðə/, mother-in-law /'m Λ ðə ın 'lo:/.

This /r/ is called linking /r/.

In non-rhotic English /r/ may be heard in places when there is no <r> in spelling, it is termed intrusive /r/, e.g. the idea of it /ðı aı'dıə r əv it/, thedata in the report /ðə 'deıtə^r ın ðə rı'po:t/.

The use of intrusive /r/ is considered by English native speakers as "lazy" or "uneducated".

/l/

1. Modified by the following vowel: lee, lit, let, lack, lark, lot, law,
luck, look, loop, lurch, lagoon, lay, lie, loud, loiter, low, lear, lair, lure,
lore (light allophones).

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: feel, fill, fell, pal, snarl, doll,
fall, dull, bull, fool, earl, jewel, wale, while, owl, oil, pole, ideal, annual
(dark allophones).

3. Devoiced after /p, k/: plea, plenty, clean, clever. Less devoiced
after /f, s/, e.g. flag, slap.

4. Devoiced and slightly fricative when syllabic, e.g. sparkle, ripple,
metal.

5. Fully voiced: Alice, fills, holes.

6. Shorter before terminal voiceless consonants than before terminal
voiced consonants and the terminal proper, cf.:

hilt — healed — doll insult — bald — Carl

belt — built — bull spoilt — bulled — jewel

asphalt — spelled — bill holt — fooled — vale

salt — snarled — bell false — hurled — well

fault — lolled — Nell

7. Modified by nasals, nasalized: signalman /'signlmən/;

by /w/ and rounded vowels, labialized, e.g. law, railway;

by dental, before and after them /1/ becomes dental, e.g. filthy,

breathless.

When preceded by front vowels dark [l] makes them more central and low, e.g. still, tell, balcony. Long /i:/ when followed by the dark [l] be­comes /ə/-likе, e.g. meal [miəl]. /aı/, /eı/ turn into /аə/, /εə/, e.g. mile [maəl], mail [mεəl].

/m/

1. Modified by the following vowel: me, mill, mad, mar, mop, more, much, moustache, moon, murky, maroon, may, my, mouse, moist, mow, mere, mare, moor.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: seem, him, them, ham, harm, bomb, storm, room, broom, drum, worm, loathsome, name, time, home.

3. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced and the terminal proper, cf.:

limp — limb — ham bump — harms — beam

hemp — dims — drum lymph — aims — come

4. Lateral release: camel.

5. Devoiced after /s/, e.g. smack.

6. Palatalized before /j/, e.g. mule.

/n/

1. Modified by the following vowel: knee, knit, nest, gnat, nasty, not, nor, nut, nook, noon, nurse, narrate, nay, nigh, now, noise, no, near, nares, Nora.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: spleen, pin, pen, pan, darn, upon, born, fun, June, burn, London, pain, fine, down, join, own, antipodean, Pitcairn, bourn, mourn, Brunnhilde.

3. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced and the terminal proper, cf. tent — turned — ban.

4. Lateral release: panel, channel.

5. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: new;

/ð/ — dental: on that;

/tς/, /d3/, /ς/, /3/ — palato-alveolar: bench.

6. Devoiced after /s/, e.g. snack /snæk/.

/ŋ/

Occurs only finally.

1. Modified by the preceding vowel: thing, song, restaurant, wrong, young, rang, length.

2. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced and the terminal proper, cf.: sink — sing.

3. Modified by /k/: bacon (it forms a syllable with the preceding /k/),

4. Vowels preceding nasals are nasalized, e.g. wrong.

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