Informal vocabulary (slang, dialect words, colloquial words)

Formal vocabulary (learned words, fiction, poetry).

Stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured (marked) group.

The extralinguistic factors influencing usage and development of language constitute one of the critical problems of linguistics. They are dealt with in sociolinguistics and linguostylistics. Sociolinguistics is interested in variations in language depending on social, educational, sex, age in social evaluation of speech habits in correlation of linguistic facts with the life and attitudes of the speaking community. Lingustylistics studies the correlation of speech situation and linguistic means used by speakers and different functional styles of speech and language. On various occasions a speaker makes use of different combinations open him in the vocabulary, parts of the words he uses will be independent of the sphere of communication. There are words equally fit to be used in a lecture, a poem or when speaking to a child. These are said to be stylistically neutral. The rest may consist of stylistically marked words, they not only does the speaker’s entire experience determine the words he knows and uses but also his knowledge of his audience and the relationship in which he stands to them governs his choice of words. Stylistically coloured or marked are words suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres and suggestive of specific conditions of communication. These words is divided into formal and informal (also called colloquial) English or in other words stylistic characteristics of words we call functional style. The term functional style is generally accepted in modern linguistics. Professor I.V.Arnold defines it as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. When placed in different situations, people choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts.

Formal style is restricted to formal situations. In general formal words fall into two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a less exclusive group of so called learned words. Formal vocabulary is used to cover varieties of English vocabulary that occur in books and magazines, that we hear from a lecturer, a public speaker, a radio announcer or possibly in official talk. These types of communication are characterised as monologues addressed by one person to many, and often prepared in advance.

Informal vocabulary is used in personal two-way everyday communication. It is in the form of dialogue where the speaker has the qualities of voice, gesture, the speaker has an opportunity to know whether he is understood, the listener can always interrupt him and demand additional information. It is used in one’s immediate circle: family, relatives, friends. Informal style is relaxed, free and easy, familiar and unpretentious. The choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker’s educational and cultural backgrounds, age group, his occupation and regional characteristics.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What are the important features of functional style?

- Why do people choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts?

- What are the extralinguistic factors influencing usage and development of language?

- What are the differences between formal and informal styles?

Lecture # 6. Theme: “Classification of vocabulary according to meaning: Synonyms” (2 hours)

Subtheme # 1: “Sources of synonyms”

Thesis:

Lexical units may also be classified by semantic similarity and semantic contrasts. The terms generally used to denote these two types of semantic relatedness synonymy and antonymy. Synonymy is often understood as semantic equivalence. It can exist between words and word-groups, word-groups and sentences, sentences and sentences. Synonyms may be found in different parts of speech and both among notional and function words. They are phonemically different words but similar in their denotational meaning. Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or similar in meaning. Synonyms are one of the language’s most important expressive means, they add precision to each detail of description and show how the correct choice of a word from a group of synonyms may colour the certain whole text. The principal function of synonyms is to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations. More often synonyms are used for stylistic purposes. After some detailed analysis synonyms are frequently said to be vocabulary’s colours, tints and hues. In terms of componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation or the same denotative component (ideographic synonyms), but differing in connotations or in connotative components (stylistic reference) or ideographic –stylistic synonyms. Quite number of words in synonymic sets are usually of Latin or French origin. Synonymy is still an object of controversy, one of the theoretical problems, the most controversial is the problem of criteria of synonymy. Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual criterion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is frequently used. In terms of componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations or in connotative components. In modern research on synonyms the criterion of interchangeability is sometimes applied. According to this synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.

Sources of synonyms:

1) desynonymization (when words are borrowed it undergo desynonymization)

2) abbreviation (in most cases the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to the neutral style)

3) formation of phrasal verbs (to give up –to abandon, to cut down –to diminish)

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What circumstances cause and stimulate the development of synonyms?

- Why do the problems of synonyms still exist?

Subtheme # 2: “Classification of synonyms”

Thesis:

By classification system for synonyms by academician V.V.Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar there are three types of synonyms:

1) ideographic (which he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning)

2) stylistic (differing in stylistic characteristics), sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we get stylistic synonyms, e.g. to begin-native, to commence-borrowing. Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the abbreviated form belong to the colloquial style, and the full form to the neutral style, e.g. examination-exam. Among stylistic synonyms we can point out a special group of words which are called euphemisms. These are words used to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words, e.g. the late instead dead, to perspire instead to sweat

3) absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics), they have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same style, e.g. to moan, to groan; homeland, motherland.

By the connotational side synonyms are divided:

1) the connotation of degree or intensity, e.g. to like-to admire, to love, to adore, to worship

2) the connotation of duration in their semantic structure, e.g. to shudder (brief)-to shiver (lasting), to say (brief)-to speak, to talk (lasting)

3) by emotive connotations (or by the nature of the emotion they imply), e.g. alone-single-lonely-solitary (the adj lonely has an emotive connotation, it means desolation resulting from being alone)

4) the evaluative connotation conveys the speaker’s attitude towards the referent, labeling it as good or bad, e.g. well-known-famous, notorious-celebrated – the adj notorious beans a negative evaluative connotation and celebrated a positive one, a notorious murderer, robber, lady-killer, a celebrated scholar, singer, man-of-letters

5) the causative connotation, e.g. to blush and to redden represent people mostly blush from modesty, shame or embarrassment (positive), but usually redden from anger, indignation

6) the connotation of manner, synonyms of this type denote different ways and types, length, tempo, purposefulness or lack of purpose, e.g. to love, to admire, to worship, to like

7) the connotation of attendant circumstances in the semantic structure of words are encoded circumstances preventing one from seeing clearly to peer, to peep- peer at smb or smth in darkness, through the fog, from a great distance, through dimmed glasses of windows.

8) the connotation of attendant features describes a special type of human activities.

9) stylistic connotations we deal with stylistically marked words (colloquial, slang, dialect, learned, poetic, terminological).

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What are the main types of synonyms from the connotational side?

- What is the classification type of synonyms suggested by V.V.Vinogradov?

Subtheme # 3: “The dominant synonym”

Thesis:

All synonymic groups have a central word of this kind whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant synonym. E.g. to surprise -to astonish, to amaze; to tremble, to shiver, to shudder, to shake.

In each group of synonyms there is a word with the most general meaning, which can substitute any word in the group.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What features differentiate dominant synonyms?

- Are there any dominant homonyms or dominant synonyms in languages?

- What are the structural and semantic, stylistic characteristics of dominant synonyms?

Lecture # 7. Theme: “Word combinations and phraseological units” (3 hours)

Subtheme # 1: “Aims and principles of phraseological units”

Thesis:

Semantically all word-groups may be classified into motivated and non-motivated. Non-motivated word groups are usually described as phraseological units. Phraseological units or idioms as they are called by most western scholars, represent what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. Phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions, recollections of its past history, scraps of folk songs and fairy-tales. Usually the leading component of the idiom is expressed by a verb or a noun. Together with synonymy and antonymy, phraseology represents expressive resources of vocabulary. V.H.Collins writes in his Book of English Idioms: “in standard spoken and written English today idiom is an established and essential element that used with care, ornaments and enriches the language”. Idioms are ready-made speech units, sometimes speech over-loaded with idioms loses its freshness and originality, they lose their colours and become trite clichés. On the other hand, oral or written speech lacking idioms loses much in expressiveness, colour and emotional force. In modern linguistics, there is considerable confusion about the terminology associated with these word-groups. Most Russian scholars use the term phraseological units which was first introduced by academician V.V.Vinogradov. the term “idiom” widely used by western scholars has comparatively found its way into Russian phraseology but is applied mostly to only a certain type of phraseological unit as it will be clear. There are some other terms denoting more or less the same linguistic phenomenon: set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, collocations.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What are the important sources of the phraseologisms?

- Is there any sameness or difference between idioms and phraseological units?

- Why words may be classified semantically into motivated and non-motivated?

- What other terms denoting more or less the same as phraseological units?

- What are the structural and semantic difference of phraseological units and free word-groups?

Subtheme # 2: “Differentiating features of phraseological units from free word-groups”

Thesis:

Free word-groups are so called not because of any absolute freedom in using them but simply because they are each time built up a new in the speech process whereas idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures. There are two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and free word-groups. 1) structural; 2) semantic.

F: isn’t it rather carrying coals to Newcastle? This cargo ship is carrying coal to Liverpool.

Here we see the semantic difference of the two word-groups consisting of the same essential constituents. In the second sentence the free word-groups is used in the direct sense, the first context quite obviously has nothing to do either with coal or with transporting it, and the meaning of the whole word-group is smth entirely new and far removed from the current meanings of the constituents. Academician V.V.Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in phraseological units as “a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words”. In the traditional approach, phraseological units have been defined as word-groups conveying a single concept (in free word-groups each meaningful component stands for a separate concept). Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing phraseological units from free word-groups as the major one and base their research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by professor A.V.Koonin, the leading authority on problems of English phraseology in our country: “a phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning”. It means that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary completely or partially. In actual fact the semantic change may affect either the whole word-group or only of its components. Partially changed meanings are not also the same as semi-fixed or non-phraseological word-groups. The term “idiom” is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meaning. There are many scholars who regard idioms as the essence of phraseology and the major focus of interest in phraseology research.

The structural criterion or structural invariability is an essential feature of phraseological units, though, some of them possess it to a lesser degree than others. This criterion finds expression in a number of restrictions. 1) restriction in substitution. As a rule, no word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a phraseological unit without destroying its sence, at the same time in free word-groups substitution does not present any dangers and does not lead to any serious consequences, all components can be changed; F: the ship (vessel) boat carries (transports, takes, brings) coal to (any part). 2) restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a phraseological unit. In the phraseological unit to carry coals to Newcastle no additional components can be introduced. In oral speech phraseological units mostly preserve their traditional structures and resist the introduction of additional components. 3) restriction in grammatical invariability. Students make mistakes if they use in the following phraseological unit the plural form of fault. F: to find fault with smb (we can’t say faults). It is a mistake in terms of the grammatical invariability of phraseological units. F: from head to foot (feet is mistake).

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. R.Z. Ginaburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1973

5. T.I. Arbekova “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1977

Additional literature:

1. A.V. Minajeva, B.K.Trnolieva “Modern English Lexicology”, 1989

2. E.M. Mednikova “Seminars in English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1978

Internet sources:

1. file: // A: // lexicographical problems.htm.

2. file: // A: // ling. Dictionaries.htm.

3. www.google.com.

4. www.yahoo.com

5. www.rambler.com

6. ftp: // ftp.clres.com/pub/clres/lexicology/primer.txt-2003

7. file: // A: / Lora. Doc/ from.Latin.htm-2003

8. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

9. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S.

Problematic questions:

- What are the distinguishing features of phraseological units and free word-groups?

- What are the essential features of structural and semantic difference of phraseological units and free word-groups?

Subtheme # 3: “Primary and secondary ways of formation of phraseological units”

Thesis:

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