Lecture 3. Subject: Antiquity and its place in the history of world culture

Plan
1. Culture of Ancient Greece.
2. Culture of Ancient Rome.

Basic concepts: the phenomenon of antiquity, Cretan-Mycenaean culture, the Homeric Age, archaic, classical period, the birth of science and philosophy, policy, democracy, polytheism, the Etruscans, the Roman civilization, the republican system, Roman, Hellenistic, and dominative Principate era, ancient art and outlook, the collapse of the Roman Empire, the emergence of Christianity.

3.1. The notion of "antiquity" appeared in the Renaissance, when Italian humanists introduced the term "antique" (from the Latin. Antiquus - Ancient) to determine the Greco-Roman culture, the oldest known at the time. Cultural heritage of ancient states had a huge impact on all the nations of Europe, their education, science, literature, art, philosophy, religious thought, political and legal views.
The oldest civilization in Greece called Cretan-Mycenaean and the center of the island of Crete and were city Mycenae in mainland Greece. Time of Cretan culture (or Minoan - under the name of the legendary King Minos of Crete) - milestone III-II millennium BC Having gone through periods of growth and decline, it lasted until about 1200 BC All life on Crete centered around the so-called palaces. At the beginning of XX century. as a result of archaeological excavations led by British scientist A. Evans at Knossos (central island) was discovered from the very first Cretan palaces. Following the Greek translation, Evans called it a palace of Minos.This palace was the famous maze, described in the Greek myths of the Minotaur - a monster with a human torso and head of a bull.
Palaces of Crete were indeed similar to the labyrinth, they consisted of many different finish and the appointment of the premises and internal planning differed promiscuity.But despite this, palaces still perceived as a single architectural ensemble. In many ways, this contributed to a large rectangular courtyard that occupied the central part of the palace, and which was connected all the rest rooms. Palaces perebudovuvalysya constantly and became more lush. Particular attention is wonderful wall paintings that adorned the interior rooms, corridors and porticos. In the frescoes depicted animals and flowers, scenes from the life of the inhabitants of the palace, including "Game of the bulls" - a religious ritual associated with a major Minoan cults - the cult of the god-bull, in the form of a translated destructive forces of nature. The symbol of eternal renewal of nature, motherhood, femininity was the Great Goddess - the central figure of the Minoan pantheon of gods. Religion played a huge role in the life of Crete, there has appeared a special form of imperial power - theocracy in which the secular and spiritual power is vested in one person. Imperial Palace served universal function, being both religious, administrative and economic center. Among the monuments of crafts and arts of Cretan civilization, which reached us, it should be noted, in addition to beautiful frescoes, beautiful bronze statues, weapons and beautiful polychrome (multicolored) ceramics.
Flourishing Minoan culture accounted for XVI - first half of XV century. BC However, in the middle of XV century. BC almost all villages and palaces of the island were destroyed as a result of powerful volcanic eruption on the island Potipherah (modern Santorini) near Crete, and the invasion of mainland Greece militant Greek Achaeans.Later Cretan culture has failed to achieve the former splendor. Center civilization moved to mainland Greece, where at this time blooms Mycenaean (or aheyska) culture that emerged about 1700 BC Initially, this culture felt a strong impact Minoan civilization. Were borrowed names of some deities, as well as water supply and sanitation, clothes fashions, fresco painting, and others. However, closely related to the oldest cultures of mainland Greece, the Mycenaean civilization was quite peculiar.The earliest monument of culture - shaft tombs in Mycenae (Peloponnese peninsula north-east), opened in 1876 a famous archaeologist, H. Schliemann. Together with bones of the dead in tombs were found ornaments, vessels, weapons, gold death mask.
The heyday of Mycenaean civilization falls on the XV-XIII century. BC As in Crete, the main centers of culture were palaces. The most significant of them are found in Mycenae, Tirinfi, Pylos, Athens. Unlike Crete, almost all aheyski palaces were fortified. Their mighty walls were built of huge stone blocks without any binding material. The Greeks, who had seen these walls at a later time, they called Cyclopean, attributing their construction giants with one eye - Cyclops. Palaces, as in Crete, were decorated with frescoes, but for the militant, less sophisticated Mycenaean culture is characterized by the predominance of scenes of war and hunting. In the heyday aheyskoyi civilization to change mine burial comes a new kind of royal tombs - domed tomb. Most of them - the tomb of Atreus in Mycenae.
Achaeans, taking XV. BC Crete, borrowed minoytsiv writing (so-called linear composite letter A) and adapted it to transmit their language (the so-called linear composite letter B). In 1953 the English scientist M. Ventrisu managed to decipher clay tablets with writing compound B, which contains records of Greek. A writing component that was used not Greeks, and minoytsi, and this day can not be decoding.
At the end of XIII century. BC huge mass pivnichnobalkanskyh barbarian tribes, not affected by Cretan-Mycenaean civilization spryamuvalasya south. Leading role in this migration of peoples has played a Greek tribe of Dorians. They had a big advantage over Achaeans - more effective than bronze, iron weapons. It was the arrival of Dorians in XII-XI centuries. BC begins and Iron Age in Greece, and in that time ceases to exist Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.
The next period of Greek history called Homeric - for the name of the great Homer.His great poem "The Iliad" and "Odyssey," created at the end of VIII century. BC - is the most important source of information about the time. They tell about the Trojan War, which took place at the end of XIII century. BC and the return of one of the main characters - Odysseus - home after the war. However, describing events related to the Cretan-Mycenaean era, Homer usually puts them in a later historical environment."Iliad" and "Odyssey" represent society as a whole with much more primitive culture than that which confronts us in the monuments of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.Heroes of Homer - the kings and members of the nobility - of living surrounded by a palisade of wooden houses, unlike the palaces of Cretan-Mycenaean kings. We have reached relatively few monuments Homeric period. The main building materials of the period - a wood and brick neobpalena, monumental sculpture, too, was wooden. The most striking monuments of art of this period came to us - it is pottery, painted with geometric patterns, a large vases, vessels, household products, as well as terracotta statues and sculptures decorate the vessels.
Homeric period was illiterate, the first known after a long break Greek inscriptions already belong to another era - archaic (second half of VIII century BC.). But it uses no linear composite letter B, and absolutely new - alphabetic writing, borrowed from the Greeks to the Phoenicians. Overall HOMERIC period was a time of decline, stagnation of culture, but it then created the preconditions of rapid growth of Greek society in archaic and classical era.
Archaic Period covered VIII-VI century. BC At this time there was great colonization - the development of Greek Mediterranean, the Black and Marmara seas. As a result of the Greek world came from the state of isolation, which was after the death of Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The Greeks learned a lot from other peoples in lidiytsiv - chekantsi coins in the Phoenicians - alphabetical writing, they improved by introducing the designation not only of consonants, but vowels. On the origin and development of science, particularly astronomy and geometry, made an impact science of ancient Egypt and Babylon. In Greek art greatly influenced by Egyptian and Near East architecture and sculpture. These and other elements of foreign cultures are creatively processed, they naturally came to Greek culture.
In Archaic period, with the final decomposition of tribal communities, the formation of the ancient polis - city-states, which belonged to the civil community and the surrounding agricultural area of ​​the city. Major policies were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Thebes. In Greece politically divided into numerous independent city-states, but it is in the archaic era Greeks interaction with other nations awakened in them the consciousness of unity, there the term "Hellenes", "Hellas", covering the Greek world in general. The main centers of economic, political and cultural links between the policies are zahalnohretski sanctuary, which contributed to the emergence of a single pantheon of gods with the merger of local cults.
By the Archaic period, mainly formed religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Greeks. It was believed that at first there was Chaos, which is separated from the Earth (the goddess Gaia) and the underworld (Tartarus). Gaia gave birth to a son, husband Uranus (Sky). The second generation of gods were children of Gaia and Uranus - Titans. Uranus, fearing that the children will take away his power, made the Titans into a deep chasm in the ground. However, titanium managed to free themselves and overthrow his father, one of them - Kronos (Time) that devours its own children, reigned over the world. He in turn moved out after a fierce struggle youngest son Kronos - Zeus, the god of thunder, lightning and rain. According to legend, Zeus and its surrounding gods lived on Mount Olympus, and the Greeks called them Olympians.
After the victory over the titans, Zeus was the supreme god of thunder, his wife Hera, the patroness of marriage - the owner of the sky. Protecting Marriage in marriage ties did not prevent Gary Zeus that embodied the social order, with other goddesses and mortal women. Ledu Zeus seduced, turned swan, Europe - a bull, this - the golden rain. His brother Poseidon, Zeus gave possession of the sea, another brother - Aida - Hades. God of light and poetry was the son of Zeus, Apollo, which is usually accompanied by the nine muses - Protecting Arts and Sciences. Other children of Zeus - Aphrodite - was the goddess of beauty, the god of fire and blacksmithing skill - Hephaestus, god of war - Ares, Goddess of Wisdom - Athena, goddess of the Moon - Artemis. Each branch of economic activity had its patron god: Demetra patron of agriculture, weaving - Athena - Wine Dionysus, trade - Hermes, hunting, wild animals and pregnant women-Artemis.
In addition zahalnohretskyh gods in every region of Greece were local deities that inhabited forests, mountains, rivers, meadows (nymphs, satire, etc.).. The Greeks believed their gods immortal and omnipotent, they imagined themselves in anthropomorphic form, that is similar to humans. The gods, as people were not free from troubles - of the world dominated by the inevitable fate that disposed of the fate and man, and gods. In addition to myths about the gods, the Greeks there were different versions about the origin of the people were very common myths about various characters, with the most popular united in cycles, such as the Trojan War, about the exploits of Hercules. Established by the Greeks is extremely rich and fascinating mythology had a great impact on other nations and is already for centuries inspired poets and artists.

In the VIII-VI century. BC emerging Greek historiography, represented by works lohohrafiv that first tried to identify the real basis of mythological stories.
An important factor in cultural development of Greece were games that were held in honor of certain gods. The most significant among them were the Olympic Games - sports, dedicated to Zeus, which were held in Olympia in 776 BC every four years; Pythian - sports and music competitions in honor of Apollo at Delphi (every four years); Isthmian - in honor of Poseidon (held at Corinth every two years).
In the era of the most developed area Archaic Greece was Ionia (west coast of Asia Minor), is there arose the first philosophical system of antiquity - physiophilosophy. Its representatives have tried to understand nature and its laws, to identify the fundamental principle of all things, while they perceive the world as a material entity.Thales believed fundamental principle of all things water Anaksymen - air, Anaximander - Apeiron (infinite), ie pershomateriyu beginnings to its opposite - solid and liquid, heat and cold. Pythagoras (VI century BC.) And his followers followed the same line of research being the root cause, they believe in the affinity of souls, and the foundation of all things they saw as the mathematical laws that create a cosmic harmony, they have made a significant contribution to mathematics, astronomy, music theory.
One of the greatest Greek philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus was (late VI - the beginning of V century BC.). In his view, both in nature and in society is perpetual motion, perpetual struggle of life is constantly changing. Fundamental principle of matter Heraclitus believed a fire which is the main enzyme of nature, connecting all kinds of matter into one.
Literary creativity existed in Greece long orally: epic, labor songs, stories and more. It produced the appearance of Homeric "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - the first Greek own literary works, and so perfect as this day, these poems are considered the major achievements of world literature, although they were still created in the VIII century. BCThere still has not lost its charm and refined poetry deeply lyrical Sappho (VII-VI centuries BC.).
By VI. BC true of the Greek theater that grew out of dance, songs and prayers, performed at religious festivals in honor of Dionysus. The development of drama associated with the release of the chorus actors - actor. Greek Theatre - a venue open air, surrounded on three sides by seats, stairs that rose up. At their foot placed round orhestra (site for choir) and skena (room for actors and props.) Actors (only men) wore masks and buskin (high soled shoes). Visit the theater was an important cultural and religious practices that united all the viewers through empathy characters (catharsis).
Art of the Archaic period is characterized searches convincing form that expresses an aesthetic ideal of the perfect body and the spirit of national policy. At this time there are two basic types of single sculpture - naked guy (kurosa) and draped women (bark) with a characteristic, the so-called archaic smile expressing affection and friendliness. Kurosiv and corresponding set of memory of famous people. In addition, there are sculptural reliefs and multi-figured compositions. The image of man, formed in archaic art, has some features, close to the art of the East: some conventional images, static, solemnity.
The main elements of the urban structure of the Archaic period were acropolis (sanctuary) and agora (shopping center), which are located around residential areas.Central to building cities occupied temples, which were originally constructed of brick and wood, and then - with limestone, and at the end of VI. BC - Made of marble. In Archaic period the synthesis of architecture and sculpture - the temples are decorated with reliefs from the outside, inside are statues of deities, which is dedicated to the temple. The statues represent not only gods but also mythical heroes (Hercules, Perseus, etc.)..
Peculiar archaic culture laid the groundwork for the dawn of classical culture, which played an important role in the development of world civilization.
Milestones in the history of ancient Greece are Greek-Persian War (500-449 BC).They expire during the formation of the ancient polis - archaic and begins a period of prosperity - a classic. The victory of the Greeks, the final design of classical slavery, the development of democratic polls instrumental in raising the economic and political life of Greece in the V century. BC and the flowering of Greek culture, which became the center of Athens, especially during the reign of Pericles (444 - 429 BC).
In the classic period of science and art provided a major role in educating a full-fledged citizen. Scientists have not satisfied the idea of ​​matter as something unique and indivisible. First introduced to science concepts of atoms, indivisible particles of matter, the famous philosopher Democritus (470 BC -? City). He believed that the world is nothing but atoms and void. All atoms are immutable, indivisible, but atoms of different bodies are different shapes and sizes, and when identical atoms are found, formed by the body. According to Democritus, no effects without causes: nature and history have no purpose, but all events are caused by. Matter is eternal and its occurrence does not need explanation - it is only necessary to explain the changes as possible without the involvement of faith in the gods.
If Democritus recognized objective knowledge, the other philosophical trend that emerged at the same time, argued that truth can be as much as there are people.Representatives of this trend - the sophists, taught to prove any position. They are characterized by the ability to find discrepancies in steady-state representations, including religious, and interest in the laws of human thought. The most famous sophists was Protagoras (480-415 BC), who stated: "Man is the measure of all things." On the environment Sophists Socrates went (469-399 BC), but he argued that there are absolute truths, absolute moral values, but they have only God. The basis of human existence and development of knowledge Socrates vvazhvav mind.
Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates medicine glorified (460 - 370 BC). His work became the basis for further development of medicine. The integrity of the organism, the necessity of individual approach to the patient and his treatment - these are the principles that Hippocrates advocated. He created the theory of the causes of disease (etiology), weather, temperaments. Was an example of ethical behavior - is that he - the author of Codex texts of ancient Greek physicians ("Hippocratic Oath").This code became the basis of commitments that make doctors in many countries at the beginning of medical practice.
In the V century literature. BC main genres are tragedy and comedy. Creator of the classic Greek tragedy is Aeschylus (525-456 BC). He introduced a second actor and thus mimic the drama, making it more dynamic, interesting, with his name linked as the use of decorations, masks. One of the main reasons of creativity Aeschylus - glorification of civil virtues, patriotism (tragedy "Prometheus"). Another important theme in Aeschylus - the idea of ​​retribution and fate factor is best expressed in the trilogy "Oresteya." Theme of the inevitable fate is a great place to work and other Greek tragic - Sophocles (497-406 BC). Great showing against human free will against the injustice of fate, Sophocles emphasizes human weakness, the inevitability of his fate is prepared. The most famous tragedy of Sophocles - the legendary King Oedipus. Creator psychological drama was Euripides (480-406 BC). The main conflict in his work - the struggle of reason and the passions that are as inevitable as fate, lead a man to death ("Medea" and "Phaedra"). An excellent comedy was Aristophanes (445 - 385 BC), which added comedy and political acuity zlobodennosti ("Horsemen", "Lisystrata"). Aristophanes used comedy as a political weapon: exposed criticized all aspects of social life, politics, art, everyday conflicts.
In V century. BC actively developing Greek historiography. Even the ancient Herodotus called (484-430 BC) "father of history". Unlike lohohrafiv, which was not clearly expressed the basic idea of ​​the story, he wrote a complete, beautifully laid out piece - "History", the basic plot of which were Greek-Persian War. However, the greatest historian of antiquity was Thucydides (460 - 400 BC). In his "History of the Peloponnesian War", he first applied scientific-critical method, tried to reveal the causal relationships of events and thereby contributed to the growth of political knowledge.
The main task of the V century art. BC was the true image of man - a strong, vibrant, full of dignity and balance spiritual forces - the winner of the Persian Wars, a free citizen of the policy. At this time the peak reaches a realistic sculpture, which was performed mainly with marble and bronze. Monumentality, the desire for harmony, proportion, creating ideal images and creativity distinguish people great sculptors of the V century. BC - Phidias ("Athena" for the Parthenon, "Zeus" for the temple at Olympia), Myron ("discobolus") Polikleta (the statue of Hera, made of gold and ivory, "Dorifor").
The ideal of beauty naked and spread body healthy in life - the Greeks were engaged in exercises, followed by personal hygiene, hair, doing hair, etc. Especially cultivated the image of an athlete who played in the competition naked. But the woman depicted in the clothes up to the IV. BC Among Greek painters V century. BC should be noted Polyglot and Apollodorus, who attributed the opening game of light and shade, the ability to give perspective.

V century BC marked by great architectural buildings almost throughout Greece. It creates the most advanced systems, after devastating the Greek-Persian wars the city recovered and monuments. During this period reached a peak of ancient Greek, has developed a system of regular planning (allocation of a rectangular network of streets, construction of residential quarters complex houses the same size), which is associated with the name of the architect Hippodama of Miletus. The main type of public buildings remained temple. In the first half of V century. BC created the most significant monuments of the day, majestic temples in Poseydoniya (South Italy), the temple of Zeus at Olympia.
A special place in the history of ancient architecture is a complex of buildings on the Athens Acropolis. Destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC, he rebuilt anew throughout the V century. under the general artistic supervision of Phidias. The ensemble is top of the Acropolis of ancient Greek architecture, a symbol of the era of greatest prosperity and power of Athens. It included a number of buildings here pidnosyvsya and the main temple of Athens - Parthenon. Great found proportions, subtle modeling of architectural details, wonderful combination of architectural and sculptural decoration - all this makes one of the masterpieces of the Parthenon not only Greek but also of world architecture.
History of Greece in the IV. BC - A history of crisis policy. The first signs of crisis were already in the years Peloponnesskoyi War (431-404 BC) between Athens and Sparta for supremacy in Greece, which ended with the defeat of Athens. The crisis of the Greek polis was a natural phenomenon. The development of commodity-money relations in Greece led to a proliferation of private ownership of land, which squeezed the ancient form of property - the economic base of the city-state. In connection with the crisis policy ideology as collective citizens' loses its meaning. Develops individualism, the desire for personal well-being, rather than the public good, gradually disappears spirit of patriotism, who played at one time an important role in the victory over the Persians. Just characteristic was that instead of civilian militias appear mercenary troops, ready to serve anyone who pays more. Some policies in the IV. BC try to establish their supremacy in Greece, but exhausted by constant internecine wars that are not sufficient for this force. In the case of Greece is increasingly interfering with other countries, including Persia and Macedonia. Finally in 338 BC after the Battle of Greece Heroneyi losing political independence and is subject to Macedonian king Philip II.
In an era of crisis policyholder lived two prominent ancient philosophers - Plato and Aristotle, who made a huge impact on the further development of philosophy and Christian theology. Plato (429-348 BC) was a disciple of Socrates. After the death of a teacher in Athens, he founded his own school - the Academy. Developing the teaching of Socrates, Plato believed that true knowledge can be obtained not only about what is happening in the state, but also about what happens in nature, and this knowledge is not special in each person, as sophists claimed as a single and common to all people. There is only one and eternal knowledge, and to get it, you need to know the so-called world of ideas.
Giving great attention to the problem of the relationship of society and the individual, Plato proposed reform policy that hylyvsya to decline. The main idea of ​​the doctrine of state is the idea of ​​justice, creating the perfect political system. State of Plato consists of the rulers of states (philosophers), soldiers and so-called Third Estate - peasants, artisans and merchants. Each state must do their work perfectly and her own. Harmonious combination of states and creates, according to Plato, fair political system.
Apprentice Plato - Aristotle (384-322 BC) is rightly called scholar. His works, which have reached us, devoted to the most different sciences: politics, logic, biology, physics, mechanics, botany, mathematics, etc. Great influence on Aristotle had not only Plato, but naturfilosofy, especially Democritus. Achieving the former philosophy Aristotle critically reworked, deepened and systematized in his philosophical system.Important in the teachings of Aristotle is the relationship of form and matter. The development is reflected in the desire of matter to the formation, registration. And that form is the beginning, that adds certainty shapeless and dead matter. The form is embedded in every creature and leads its development, it is inseparable from matter.Aristotle also developed the doctrine of the nature of the concept, its relation to the subject matter, methods of thinking and logic. Like Plato, he realized that man can realize himself only in the society. The ultimate goal of all human actions, he acknowledged the happiness that lies in the implementation of a human being according to the principle of form. Aristotle made a huge impact on the philosophical direction of the Middle Ages and modern times. His teachings, which he tried to link the strengths of the views of Democritus and Plato, had followers and materialistic, and objective-idealistic tendencies.
In literature IV. BC The leading place is prose, the tragedy at this time decline significantly changed comedy. Very high level reaches oratory, speeches Isokrata (436-338 BC), Demosthenes (384-322 BC) a long time remained unsurpassed examples of literary excellence. The most important historian of the IV. BC was Xenophon (430-354 BC). His best works "Anabasys" and "Greek history" are simple language and clarity of presentation, however, the level of Thucydides Xenophon could not rise - it is mainly interested in large individuals, not causal relationships of events.
Greek architecture IV. BC, developing the achievements of the previous century, still gets some features. It is dominated by decorative principle and the most difficult and most sophisticated of the Greek architectural styles - Corinthian. Used new compositional techniques, including building a round shape. The first is the construction of much attention spectacular buildings - theaters that are now built with durable materials - stone. The most famous buildings of this type - the theater of Dionysus in Athens and the mausoleum of Halicarnassus in.
Crisis polls ideology had a great impact on the development of Greek sculpture.Capture beautiful valor and noble citizen, who portrayed the master of the V century.BC changed interest in human personality. The most celebrated sculptors of the time - Praxiteles, and Skopas Lisypp. Picture of gods that embody the ideal beauty, Praxiteles (390-330 BC) fills a purely human sentiments of various shades ("Knidska Aphrodite," "Apollo that kills lizard"). It was he who first portrayed the goddess Aphrodite naked. Unlike Praxiteles, representing a light, pleasant man emotions Skopas shows deep feelings, dramatic situations ("Hercules", "Bacchante").Pereosmyslyvshy canon image of man created in the V century. BC Polikletom, Lisypp body did people with more light, elongated proportions. He sought to create authentic life statues ("Hercules," "Hermes") and sculpted portraits (Socrates, Alexander Macedonian), providing the basic artistic principles of the Hellenistic period.
New milestones in the history of Greece and the Hellenistic era becomes a trip to the east of Alexander Macedonian (356-323 BC) - son of Philip II, who had subjugated Greece. As a result of the campaign (334-324 BC) was created huge state that stretched from the Danube to the Indus, from Egypt - to contemporary Central Asia. It starts with the Hellenistic era, the era of spreading Greek culture throughout the state of Alexander Macedonian. The mutual enrichment of the Greek and local cultures contributed to the common Hellenistic culture that survived after the collapse of the empire into a number of so-called Hellenistic States (Ptolemeyevskyy Egypt, the state Selevkydiv, Pergamum kingdom of Bactria, Pont Empire).
In the age of Hellenism largely disappears characteristic of the classical era the gap between theory and practice, science and technology. This time the default is a scientist, as a famous Archimedes (287-212 BC). He created the concept of an infinitely large number, hydraulic opened a law named after him, was the founder of theoretical mechanics. There is a great merit of Archimedes in the development of technology: he created a screw pump, bolt, designed a lot of military catapult, defense guns.
Construction of new cities, the development of navigation, military technology contributed to flourishing of mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, geography.Became famous as other scholars the Hellenistic period: Euclid (III century BC.), Which created the elementary geometry, Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), which is quite precisely defined length of the terrestrial meridian, and thus established the true size of the Earth, Aristarchus Samosskyy (end of IV century. - III century BC.) that proved the Earth's rotation around its axis and its motion around the Sun, Hipparchus of Alexandria (190-125 BC) that set the exact length of the solar year and calculated the distance from Earth to the Moon and the Sun. Successfully developed and natural sciences, especially medicine. In this area are great merits and Herofilu Erasystratu (300 - 240 BC), who discovered the nervous system, found value in heart rate, made a big step forward in the study of brain and heart. In the field of botany should be noted labor pupil of Aristotle - Feofrasta (372-287 BC). The development of scientific knowledge required systematization and storage of the accumulated information. In some cities establish libraries, the most famous of them - in Alexandria and Pergamum. Alexandrian library contained about one million papyrus scrolls. All manuscripts were systematized, and a special department was engaged in the translation of Greek works of major authors from different countries. In Alexandria at the court of the Ptolemies was created so-called Museyon (house music), which served as a research center. In it were different rooms, collections, audience, and free accommodation for scholars. The mathematician Euclid created here his main work "Elements."

In the Hellenistic age developing a new branch of knowledge, virtually absent in the classical era - philology in the broad sense of the word: grammar, text criticism, literary criticism. The greatest importance was the Alexandrian school, whose main merit is the critical word processing and commenting on classic works of Greek literature. Literature Hellenistic period, although it becomes more diverse, much inferior to classical. Epic, tragedy still exist, but are more prudent, in the foreground stand erudition, sophistication and virtuosity words. Yes, Rodosskiy Apollonius (295-215 BC) tried, following Homer, resurrect the epic, creating a great work on the campaign Argonauts the Golden Fleece. Kallimah (310 - 240 BC) was the tragedy, epic poems, hymns, lyric poetry, but he was a scientist and philologist rather than a poet. Hellenistic monarchies court life and the life of big cities have generated a special kind of poetry - idyll. The most prominent representative of this genre was Feokrit (end of IV-III century BC.). His idyll is shown against a background of nature, mostly living in rural people.
With the decay of the policy disappears political comedy, replaced it on a realistic household comedy, beautifully presented work of Athenian Menander (343 - 291 BC).Widespread in the Hellenistic age become so-called mimes - short dramatic scenes from the lives of ordinary citizens. The most famous author of mimes was Herodes.
History of Hellenistic increasingly turns to fiction, the main attention is paid interest of presentation, harmony of composition, perfect style. Not only exception is Polybius (200 - 120 BC), who sought to continue the tradition of Thucydides, and first tried to write a coherent world history. Philosophy in the Hellenistic age had a number of features. The most important of these is eclecticism - the desire to combine elements of different schools, the inability to create a unified and coherent system. In addition, the philosophy is basically an ethical orientation - the first place is occupied by questions of morality, natural philosophy and epistemological problems overshadowed. The crisis of policy, its collective moral decline leading to the increasing development of individualism in the Hellenistic age, not only in philosophy but also in literature and art. On the one hand, to understand the value of an individual, it promotes self-expression, but at the same time leads to the apolitical, the loss of civic virtues, so valued in the classical era. As a result, philosophers vidhorodzhuyutsya from the outside world, dealing with personal improvement. The most typical of the Hellenistic period were two new schools - epicurism and stoicism.
Epicureanism was the founder of Athenian Epicurus (341-270 BC). He argued that the aim of man should be a personal bliss, which is recognized as the highest form of ataraxia, ie, equanimity, peace of mind. But, according to Epicurus, peace of mind requires the liberation of man from all the erroneous ideas about the nature of things, from all mythological and religious. Wise founded a philosophical school in Athens, relied on common life and daily training of the students ("The Garden of Epicurus"), where the chief was not the acquisition of knowledge, and the test has already acquired knowledge in a common life. The second system - stoicism - was created Zeno (336 - 264 years BC. BC), who lived in Cyprus. The ideal of virtue (Aretha) Stoics - regardless of desires and actions of the senses. The highest norm of behavior is apathy, impartiality. Sage should be guided only by reason and Coming so he follows nature, ie the world of reason, which Stoics identified with fire.
Age Hellenistic religion has brought in several new phenomena. This cult of monarchs who grew up on the basis of the deification of the person of the king, typical of some eastern societies. Greek-Macedonian monarchs did this cult general. Reigning monarch and his wife recognized their gods, their temples were constructed after they were granted honors as gods. Another characteristic feature of Hellenistic religion - the cult of destiny. The old Greek idea of ​​the fatal forces of society and nature, standing over a man, much modified. But the most typical of Hellenistic religion is a syncretism - mixing different elements of Greek and Eastern religious beliefs.
Building a culture of Hellenism in many ways helped spread the Greek education system. In the first stage students receive skills in reading, writing, counting, doing gymnastics and music. The next stage of education was associated with the study of language, mathematics, astronomy, music theory, and continued playing sports. The highest level of education was considered the study of philosophy and rhetoric.
In the Hellenistic era building many new cities and redevelopment of old carried on a particular system: the city opoyasuvalosya massive walls, within which were located outside that limited the right rectangular blocks. In cities the number of public buildings: built palestra (Sports school), gymnasium (school organization), stadiums, libraries, baths. In the capitals of the Hellenistic era built palaces, widely used mosaic covering patios, walls of buildings are decorated with paintings that mimic the lining color stone, often found as narrative paintings. In the Hellenistic period and there are specific structures known as Farosskyy lighthouse in Alexandria, Tower of Winds in Athens.
In the Hellenistic age continue to develop trends that emerged in Greek sculpture IV.BC Masters Hellenistic show increased interest in personality, her emotions, and features sculptures of this time - dynamic, expressive. Actively growing genre direction, new schools - in Pergamum, on Rhodes, in Alexandria. The most significant works of the time - it relieves Pergamon Altar of Zeus, Aphrodite from the island of Melos ("Venus Milosska"), sculptural group "Laocoon," a portrait of Demosthenes. In 290 BC residents of Rhodes, in memory of the victory over the Macedonian king in 304 BC, erected at the entrance to Rhodes port bronze statue (height 35 m) of the sun god Helios - Colossus of Rhodes, which was recognized as one of the seven wonders of the world. The face and crown of the god was gold, but by '58 destroyed the statue of a powerful earthquake.
3.2. State of the Hellenistic period, encountered in the IV. BC, there were relatively short time. Already in the II-I century. BC most of them were conquered by Rome.Since then the center of ancient culture is the territory of modern Italy. However, the oldest civilization in the Apennine peninsula is Etruscan. And in BC in Central and Northern Italy, the Etruscans created a federation of city-states. Stone walls and buildings, a clear layout of streets that intersect at right angles - the characteristics of their cities. It was the Etruscans were the first to construct a building with dome forms.
Archaeological excavations have allowed to find numerous Etruscan monuments, including tombs, decorated with many colors painted with scenes of everyday life and religious grounds. Etruscans have mastered the art of working stone, metal, terra cotta. High levels reached their pottery. For Art Etruscans inherent realism - the desire to convey the most essential features of man, and this is especially noticeable in the sculptural portraits of this era. It is due to Etruscan influence of Roman portrait eventually reached such perfection. During excavations were also found around 10 thousand inscriptions, but it Etruscans and still, except for some words, not completely deciphered. Pantheon of gods in Greek mostly responsible, but the Etruscans worshiped as many good and evil demons. The main deity was Voltumna that acquired form or demon warrior.
Great influence on the distinctive Etruscan culture had the Greeks who came here during the Great colonization (VIII-VIst. BC). Etruscans followed them into the forms and ornaments pottery, built temples for the Greek samples, Etruscan deity acquired more functions and features Greek, learned the Etruscans and images of Greek mythology, epic HOMERIC. In turn, the Etruscans influenced the neighboring Italian people and in particular, to the Romans: Etruscan influence is traced in the architecture, sculpture, religion of ancient Rome.
The beginning of Roman history is traditionally referred to as 753 BC - The foundation of the city. First, the king's history covers the period VIII-VIst. BC, by the end of his Rome emerged as the Greek city-state type. According to legend, Rome was ruled by seven kings, and three were the last Etruscan origin. In them the city was surrounded by a stone wall, carried sewage, built the first circus for gladiatorial games. From the Etruscans the Romans inherited the handicraft and construction equipment, writing so-called Roman numerals. Was borrowed clothes and Romans - toga and residential architecture.
Early Roman religion was animistic, that recognized the existence of various spirits, it was also inherent elements of totemism, which affected, in particular, in honoring Capitol she-wolf that suckled Romulus and Remus brothers - founders of the city. But gradually under the influence of the Etruscans, who imagined, as the Greeks, the gods in human form, the Romans went to antropomorfizmu. The first church in Rome - Temple of Jupiter on Capitol Hill - was built by Etruscan craftsmen. However, the Etruscan domination in Rome ended in 510 BC - Insurgent people overthrew the last king of Tarquinia Proud (534-509 BC). Rome became the aristocratic slaveholding republic. The period covers the early Republic VI-IIIst. BC, at the time of Rome can subdue the whole territory of the Apennine peninsula.
Important role in the development of culture rannorymskoyi played conquest of Greek cities of southern Italy, which accelerated the involvement of the Romans to the higher Greek culture. In the IV. BC, mostly among the upper strata of Roman society, begin to spread the Greek language, some Greek customs, in particular, shaving beards and cutting hair short. At the same time is the replacement of the old Etruscan alphabet Greek, more appropriate to Latin sounds. With the formation of civil communities, the republican system of linked public speaking. Speeches senators, officials in the assembly required knowledge and art to persuade listeners. By IV. BCconcerns the origin of Rome Theatre - following the example of the Etruscans were introduced for stage games that were performed by professional actors.

Further development of the Roman Republic continued in III-I century. BC From the 60's III. BC Rome waged constant war for supremacy throughout the Mediterranean.Decisive stage of this struggle was the destruction of Carthage (Rome's main rival) and the transformation of Greece and Macedonia in the Roman province. By mid-II cent. BC Rome is a strong Mediterranean countries, but around the same time the country's domestic political situation is changing - starting civil wars that led to the fall of the Republic. Temporary military dictatorship (like Sulla (138-78 BC's. E.) or Caesar (102-44 BC) by the end of I century BC. Principate replaced - hereditary dictatorship under Republican shell.
Roman culture piznorespublikanskoyi day was a combination of many elements (Etruscan, Roman actually, Italian, Greek), which resulted in its eclecticism. Since the III. BC especially great influence on Roman religion began to exert a Greek. Roman gods are identified with the Greek: Jupiter - from Jupiter, Neptune - with Poseidon, Pluto - Ayidom from Mars - with Ares, Juno - the hero Minerva - with Athena, Ceres - with Demeter, Venus - with Aphrodite, volcano - of Hephaestus, Mercury - from Hermes, Diana - with Artemis. The cult of Apollo was taken back in the V century. BC, his counterpart in the Roman religion was not. One was purely Italian deities Janus, which was represented with two lytsyamy deity as entry and exit, every start.Davnoitaliyskoho origin were household gods - Language, Geniuses, Penates. In bohah Romans personified natural and social phenomena, and abstract concepts: Fortuna (luck), Victoria (Victory). It should be noted that the Roman pantheon was never closed, its members and adopted foreign gods. It was believed that the new gods of power increase the Romans.
Greek literature, with popular Italian works, had a significant impact on the formation and development of Roman literature. The first works were in Latin translations from Greek. The first was the Roman poet Livy vilnovidpuschenyy Greek slave Andronicus, who translated the Latin of Greek tragedy and comedy, "Odyssey" by Homer. The greatest Roman writer of the time - Plautus (III century. - 184 BC): he attributed the creation of 130 comedies, of which 20 have survived. It reflected the Roman comedies, reality, although heroes are Greek names, and the action takes place in the Greek cities. Comedy Plautus were the first pieces of Roman humor and bright juicy Latin. Somewhat later wrote his comedy Terentsiy (195 - 159 BC), which unlike Plautus tried not to use the Roman scenes and limited transfer of Greek writers, especially Menander. Greek tragedy with its ideas of guilt and the inevitable tragic fate not resonated with the Romans, who lived with clear rules of law.
The new, higher, level rose in Roman poetry and art. BC Among the many poets of that time occupied a special place and Lukretsiy Catullo. Lucretia is a philosophical poem "On the nature of things" that follows the teachings of Epicurus. Catullo (87-54 BC) was a master of lyrical poetry, the author of his minor poems, which describes a variety of human feelings. The first prose work in Latin was the work of Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) "On agriculture," and later wrote a Latin history of Cato of Rome. The most prominent writers of prose masters of the period of the late Republic were Varro and Cicero. The main work of Varro (116-27 BC) - "Ancient divine and human affairs" - a kind of historical, geographical and religious encyclopedia. Its author of numerous grammatical, historical and literary works, biographies of the most distinguished citizens, philosophical works. Cicero (106-43 BC) was an outstanding statesman, a consummate orator, lawyer, scholar of philosophy, a great writer. In his philosophical writings he sought to involve the Romans to the values ​​of Greek philosophy. He tried to link the rhetoric and philosophy, asking them to serve the state. For all subsequent generations of classical prose Cicero served as an unattainable model.
Roman historiography served, above all, the purpose of political propaganda, explanation and justification of foreign and domestic policy of Rome. The largest contribution to the historiography of the period did Sallust (86-35 BC) and the great military leader, dictator Julius Caesar (102-44 BC) with his work "Notes on the Gallic War". The influence of Greek culture and affected the development of Roman philosophy - the most common were teaching Epicureans and Stoics. Original, independent philosophical system in Rome has not been established.
Roman architecture felt strongly influenced Etruscan and Greek especially. In their structures the Romans sought to emphasize strength, power, grandeur. For their structures characterized by monumentality, lush finish of buildings, lots of jewelry, the desire for strict symmetry, is mainly to create a temple complex, and buildings and structures for practical purposes. Roman architects developed a new design principles, in particular, are widely used arches and domes, together with columns and pilasters using poles. In the II-I century. BC are beginning to widely use concrete, vaulted structures. There are new types of buildings such as the Basilica, where the trades were conducted and vershyvsya court, an amphitheater, where gladiatorial fights were arranged, circuses, where there were race chariots terms - a complex set of bath rooms, libraries, places for play, for walking, surrounded by park. There is a new type of monumental structures - triumphal arch. Improving technology arched construction promotes the active construction of aqueducts and bridges.
The conquest of Greece and the Hellenistic states accompanied by robbery cities.Along with slaves, various kinds of material values ​​were exported to Rome in an enormous number of Greek statues and paintings. Yes, they were transported to Rome works Skopasa, Praxiteles, Lisyppa, Apelles and other Greek artists. The passion for collecting, love to decorate and just snobbery Rome turned into a museum of Greek art. Despite the large number of originals, exported from Greece, comes a large demand for copies of the most famous statues. A large influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying actually retarded the development of Roman sculpture. Only in a realistic portrait of the Romans, who used Etruscan traditions, have contributed to the development of sculpture. That portrait statues become the dominant value, and that they proved the uniqueness of Roman art. Romans created the statue, depicting a speaker in tozi and such sculptural form as a sculptural portrait busts, which were distinguished by severe simplicity and truthfulness of images. It was a cult heroes in all public places erected statues and busts of rulers, military leaders and philosophers. In the II-I century. BC were created such great works as busts of Cicero and Caesar.
A characteristic feature of empiricism was thinking of the Romans, the love of Applied Sciences. Thus, the high level reached in Rome agronomy (agricultural known treatises Cato, Varro), Roman architect Vitruviy wrote a treatise "On Architecture". In Rome there and guide to rhetoric, which taught basic rules of oratory, a special role in development played by Mark Tulliy Cicero. Has significantly developed jurisprudence - the science of law. One of the greatest achievements of ancient Rome - it was Roman law. The earliest written fixation of Roman law - is the law of 12 tables (451-450 BC). These laws were put on the forum, but the plate with their text was destroyed in 387 BC under the Gauls attack on Rome. Pravoznavski first study appeared in the II century. BC, and in the first century. BC already existed lengthy legal literature.
From 31 BC begins a new page of Roman history - the history of the Empire. End and art. BC - II cent. BC - A time early Empire Principate era, flourishing slave relationship. The Roman state into a huge empire that includes the Eastern Mediterranean, North Africa, much of Europe.
Center for the study of philosophy in the Roman Empire (as in classical Greece, in the Hellenistic age) remained Athens. In Romans, still were common in the I-II cent. BCstoicism and epicurism. In the Roman nobility was especially popular this stoicism. Its main representatives were: Roman philosopher, politician, poet, tutor of Emperor Nero, Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD) and the philosopher on the throne - the emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 years), who wrote a single essay - "Reflections". The Stoics argued that a truly free and just man who is guided by reason rather than the desires and passions.
For religion, age Principate characteristic is the establishment of new cults - veneration of the emperor, who declared after the death of the divine, and the goddess Roma as a patron of the entire Roman Empire. Science Centre of the Roman Empire were the largest cities - Rome, Alexandria, Athens, Carthage. Great importance in the I-II cent. BC given geographic knowledge - there are treatises Strabo (64 BC - 24 AD), Ptolemy (90-160 years). "Natural History", which is an encyclopedia of physical geography, botany, zoology, mineralogy, created Pliny the Elder (23-79 years). Great success has medicine. The physician Galen (130 - 200 years) led a study on the respiratory activity of the spinal cord and brain, while schools have been established for training doctors. However, together with the achievements of science are in the II century. BC were visible signs of regression. In astronomy there is the rejection of the proposed Aristarchus Samosskym back in the III. BCheleotsentrychnoyi theory, adopted the system of Ptolemy - Geocentric, whereby the center of the solar system are Earth. Also, very popular in the era of the Principate enjoys astrology.
One of the highest achievements of Roman culture - the literature of the Early Empire.It is represented by a constellation of names great writers Apuley, Pliny the Younger, satirist Juvenal, Petroniy, Lucian, poets Verhyliy (70 - 19 BC), Horace (65 BC - 8 p. BC), Ovid (43 BC - 18 AD). Verhyliy famous primarily as the author of the "Aeneid," which was the Roman national epic. Great influence on the character Romans made poetry of Horace, which magnified sense of tact, measure, dignity of man.
Blossom up as Roman historiography: Titus Livy (59 BC - 17 AD), Pliny the Elder, Josephus, Tacitus (58-117 years).
Before I-II cent. BC include construction of two best-known Roman architectural monuments - the Colosseum, the largest amphitheater of the ancient world that could accommodate 50 thousand spectators, and the Pantheon, a temple in the name of all gods. Construction of triumphal arches and columns was primarily political significance. Walls, ceilings, floors of public buildings and palaces of emperors and wealthy private homes were decorated with paintings or mosaics. Superb examples of Roman painting have been preserved in Pompeii, and Herkulami stages, covered with ashes during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD
During the Empire was a special distribution of portrait sculpture. Preserved many fine portrait statues, busts, sculpted images that convey a realistic features of emperors, generals, poets, scientists. At the end of II century. BC in the Roman Empire begins the crisis, which in the III. covers the entire state and is comprehensive. Its most striking manifestation was frequent change of emperors, disruption provinces, the appearance in different parts of the empire of independent rulers.

IV-V century. BC - A period of late Empire, this time the shape of the Roman state, Principate gives way dominative - absolute monarchy deprived of Republican signs.With the establishment dominative situation in the Empire is somewhat normal, but the centrifugal forces continue to act, and Empire in 395 was finally divided into West with the center in Rome and the East centered in Constantinople.
History of culture of late antique period is in the struggle of ancient traditions that decomposes, with new, Christian, principles. Christianity arises on the basis of common in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, the idea of ​​waiting messiah - savior. In its further development, it takes elements of Eastern religions and cults, Hellenistic philosophy and social utopias. In the center of the Christian belief system was that in the person of Jesus Christ Son of God incarnate in man. The image of Christ the messiah (gr. Shristus - anointed one), first mentioned in the most general form, and only later, in the end of the century. and in the first half of II century. BCappeared biography of the founder of a new religion - the gospel. The first was set up The Gospel of Mark, later - Matthew and Luke. Luke - an attempt to make Christianity more close and clear the world of ancient culture and education. From other gospels it differs humanistic orientation and heightened emotionality.
In the first period of its existence Christianity aroused only suspicion and dislike of the imperial attitude of the authorities, in the middle of the III. it was banned, began the persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire. However, in the IV.Christianity becomes the state religion, began the rout of pagan temples prohibited Olympics. It should be noted that the triumph of the Christian church was accompanied by loss of many monuments of ancient culture. In the era of late antiquity, Christian literature, expanding and complicating the Christian doctrine, laid the foundations of medieval scholasticism and theology. In the IV. BC begin to build Christian churches - the Basilica. The form and name them were borrowed from earlier ancient basilicas that were administrative and judicial buildings.
Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as the Byzantine Empire, whose culture was a continuation of Greek, but in the Christian version. Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476, when the last emperor was overthrown. This year is traditionally considered the end of antiquity and antiquity, and the beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins of empire Zahidnorymskoyi have so-called barbarian kingdoms, whose population was to some extent involved in the Greco-Roman culture had a great influence on the development of these countries.

Questions for self-control:
1. What characteristics should an ancient culture?
2. Name the prominent figures of literature and art of ancient Greece and Rome.
3. Why is achievement of ancient civilization foundation of European civilization?
4. Expand the content of ideological basis of the ancient world.
5. What are the main stages in its development was ancient Greek culture?
6. What is the historical importance of Roman law?
7. When, where and under what historical circumstances Christianity was born?

Дата добавления: 2014-01-07