Lecture 4. Subject: Culture of Medieval Europe

Plan
1. Middle Ages as a distinct epoch in European history, its ideological foundations.
2. Science and education in a sacralization of the social and spiritual life.
3. Literature and art of the day of the European Middle Ages.

Basic concepts: theology, heretical teachings, religious, religious orders, the split in Christianity, the Roman Catholic Church, Orthodox (Orthodox) church, vizantyzm, sacralization, the first European universities, scholasticism, traditional heroic epic, knight literature and courtly poetry, troubadours, vahanty, truvery, urban culture, morality, Romanesque, Gothic architecture.

4.1. The term "Middle Ages" was launched by European thinkers, humanists about 1500 so they marked the millennium that separated them from the "golden age" of antiquity. It should be noted that for a long time in the historical literature dominated view of the Middle Ages as a "dark, dark ages." Basics of the vision laid once more educator. However, the history of Western culture society was not as unambiguous and one-dimensional. However, it is undeniable that all the cultural life of European society of that period is largely determined by Christianity, which is in the IV.becomes the state religion of Rome. At this time the Ecumenical Church Council adopted a number of provisions of basic Christian doctrine - a symbol of faith. These provisions are declared binding on all Christians. The basis of Christian doctrine was belief in the resurrection of Christ, the eternal life and resurrection of the Divine Trinity.The concept of the Divine Trinity treat God as one essence in three manifestations: God the Father, creator of the world, God the Son, Jesus Christ and God the Holy Spirit. Christianity convinced that man by nature is weak and prone to sin and can not without the help of the church to get salvation. The influence of the church in feudal society was enormous, though uneven across Europe. Thus, in the east of the continent, in Byzantium, the Christian church essentially depended on a strong imperial power. After the Byzantine emperors since the V century. played an important role in our own church life, even to convene council belonged to the emperor, who himself defined the composition of their members and approved their decision. In the western church is not only subordinate to the extent the state, but rather took a special position. Bishop of Rome, which of the IV. called the Popes, arrogated to themselves as important political function.
Discernable effect on the development of all European culture and vnutrishnohrystyyanskyy caused conflict. Between West (Rome) and Eastern (Constantinople) Church existed and over time more and more controversy deepened, gaining more and more of principle. Thus, in the middle of the IX.vibuvalasya discussion on the filioque (Filioque), ie the release of the Holy Spirit only to God the Father (the position of the Eastern Church) or from God the Father and God the son (the position of the Western Church). The final gap of two religious centers took place in 1054 when the church openly proclaimed full independence from each other. After the break the two churches continued to claim the role of the Catholic Church - Catholic (in the western transcription) or kafolychnoyi (in eastern transcription). Since then, Western Church calls itself Roman Catholic, and Eastern - Greek Orthodox kafolychnoyu or (orthodox, orthodox).
Until the early Middle Ages is also the emergence of heresy (from December. Hairesis - special doctrine). Thus, supporters of heretical teachings Nestorianism denied the dogma about the divine nature of Christ, claiming that Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary were mortal men. Another heretical teaching - monofizytstvo, by contrast, saw only God in Christ and rejected it in human nature. Papacy, which appeared in the VIII century., Always actively resisted the spread of heresy. One of the tools to combat it was the Inquisition (from Lat. Inqusitio - search), which from the XIII century.acted as a regular church court. At the heretics were punished freethinkers witches, sorcerers, healers, seers and psychics future, which the church accused of having links with evil forces. Church warned that the devil infuses people, especially in women and forced them to do evil. Charges of aiding the devil was sufficient to deliver a death sentence. Accidents are usually burned at the stake. Such processes were almost widespread in Western Europe. In Spain, for example, the Inquisition fires killed 30,000 people.
A major role in the West and in Byzantium, played monasticism: monks have committed themselves to "retreat from the world," celibacy, and rejection of the property. However, by the VI. monasteries turned into a strong and often very rich centers that had significant movable and immovable property. Many monasteries, however, were centers of education and culture. There also are some religious association, as the military-religious orders. Thus, in 1118 settled in Jerusalem the Knights Templar (Fr. temr1e - Temple). Knights, joining the Order, gave promise of celibacy, poverty, obedience and pledged to defend the values ​​of faith. From ordinary monks such distinguished knights and clothing, which was shown cross. There were and there were so-called zhebrakuyuchi orders (Dominican, Franciscan) who were part of the urban religious movements, and at the same time, a response to heretical extremes. They settled in the cities because their members are not called monks, monks (gr. monachos - hermit), and brothers. First they existed at the expense of alms, but one of the most important aspects of zhebrakuyuchyh orders were pastoral ministry, especially preaching and confession. Hence the passion for missionary brothers (they even reached China), and their intransigent struggle against heresy. In the XIII century. Dominicans and Franciscans led the Inquisition in Europe. With them came the greatest theologians of the environment of the Middle Ages - Albert the Great (1193-1280 biennium) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 biennium). Albert the Great started the restructuring and encyclopaedic systematization of Christian theology. The main work of Thomas Aquinas "The amount of theology" generalized principal foundations of the medieval worldview. It was Father Thomas was formulated five logical proofs of God's existence.
In XII-XIII centuries. greatly expanded the influence of the Catholic Church and the papacy in society. The most powerful pope of that period was Innocent III (1160-1216 biennium). During his papacy reached its zenith of power. He established a comprehensive control over the power of the church and society. With the implementation of its decisions has followed debugged administrative and fiscal apparatus. None of the Pope was not as generous for anathema and excommunication, by which he kept in fear of European monarchs. Then the Pontiff sought to transform all the sovereigns of Europe to the vassals of the Holy See.
The Roman Catholic Church (RCC) acted as arbitrator in disputes between states, it was the largest financial center in the world, actively conducted business and general economic activity - selling indulgences (from Lat. - Mercy) - letters of absolution, as already committed, and future, and the price of indulgences depend on the severity of the crime. In general, European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was very great.

4.2. The official teaching of the Church, its basic tenets and dogmas were the initial moment of human thought, all science (law, science, philosophy, logic) invoked in line with official Christianity. The clergy were the only educated class, and that the church has long defined politics in education. In V-IX centuries. all schools in Western Europe were in the hands of the church, the church was just a training program and picked up students. The main task of religious schools have been identified training and education of priests. However, the Christian church has kept and used the elements of secular culture that remained from the ancient system of education. In church schools taught discipline, inherited from antiquity, including "seven liberal arts" - grammar, rhetoric, dialectic with elements of logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. At the same time, ancient texts often destroyed, and the expensive parchment used for writing the monastic chronicles. There were also a secular school that has trained the boys, not intended for ecclesiastical career. Many such schools were opened in the second half of the IX. in England. They studied children of noble families, and taught by teachers from continental Europe that are actively translated in English works of ancient authors.
Note that the level of teaching in different schools and in different periods of the Middle Ages was different, and accordingly changed the level of education of people.After a rise in VIII-IX centuries., Intellectual development, mental life in the X - the beginning of XI century. markedly slowed. Illiterate clergy were widely spread ignorance. For example, believed that the Earth is like a wheel, which on all sides surrounding ocean, and in the center of the Earth is the city of Jerusalem. The ancient idea of ​​the Earth kulepodibnist rejected: it was considered impossible that the people on the opposite side of the Earth flying on their heads. Declined skryptoriyi - workshops, which were attached to churches and monasteries, which were copied manuscripts, and church and monastery libraries. Books were few and were they are extremely expensive. For example, at the beginning of XI century. "Grammar" was worth as much as a house with a plot. In some European countries, however, retained a high level of teaching. Thus, in X-XI centuries. in high school Spanish taught philosophy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, law, Islamic theology. This came to learn from all the countries of Western Europe and from the Near and Middle Asia.

Great importance was the fact that in XI. in Italy at the Bologna Law School, opened the first university (1088), which became the largest center for the study of Roman and canon law. Students and professors in universities combined (Latin - association) in order to achieve independence from the city and have the right to self-government.The University was divided into friendly association - an association of students from a country, as well as faculties (Latin - feature), where they acquire certain knowledge.In England in 1167 founded the first university in Oxford, later - University of Cambridge. An outstanding university scholar England XIII. was Roger Bacon (1214-1292 years), which as the main method of learning put forward no religious dogma and authority, and reason and experience. The biggest and the first university in France was Paris Sorbonne (1160). It comprised four faculties: general, medical, legal and theological. Sorbonne was recognized center of theology. Just as in other prominent universities, students flocked here from all European countries. Teaching, as elsewhere in Western Europe, was conducted in Latin.
Medieval university science called scholasticism (from Gr. - School, scholar), that school science. Its most characteristic features were the desire to rely on authority, especially religious, underestimation of the role of experience as a method of learning, a combination teoloho-dogmatic principles of rational principles, interest in formal logic problems. Overall, the influence of the church in medieval universities was enormous.
In Byzantium the early medieval period was also characterized by strengthening the position of the Orthodox Christian Church in education, which is reflected, for example, in persecutions of ancient philosophy. In VI. Athens was closed the famous school, founded Plato, which existed at that time almost 1000 years. Ancient philosophy has replaced theology, but in the middle of the IX. Constantinople was founded in high school, where teaching was based on ancient samples. Most prominent representatives of Byzantine culture of the time was the patriarch Photius (810-890 years), compiled by "Miriobibliona" - collections of reviews for 280 works of mostly ancient authors, and original author of theological works.
In IX-X century. in the Byzantine Empire there is natural growth of scientific knowledge. Created encyclopedia of different branches of knowledge, containing various information about the Byzantine society and the neighboring countries and peoples, including those of the Eastern Slavs. They consist of surgery aids, textbooks in mathematics. However, with the exact sciences, becoming widespread occult science - alchemy, astrology, magic.

4.3. The most important element of medieval culture was also literature. During the early Middle Ages actively developed an oral poetry, especially the heroic epic, which was characteristic especially for England and Scandinavia. The biggest piece anhlosakskoho heroic epic - the poem "Beowulf" (700 was). A special place in literature Scandinavian peoples occupied the famous Icelandic sagas. One of the most famous - "Saga of Eric the Red," which tells about the opening of Icelanders Greenland and North America. In addition, there is growing and Chivalrous Literature.One of the most influential works - the largest national monument of French heroic epic - "The Song of Roland," in which ospivuyutsya military exploits of the famous commander of King Charlemagne Count Roland, who died during the military campaign in Spain. Already in the XII century. appear chivalry. One of the most famous poets, who worked in the genre of chivalric epic was Chretien de Troyes (1150-1190 biennium). His novels ("Lancelot", "Eric and Aeneid") were dedicated to the Celtic King Arthur and his vassals - knights of the Round Table. Very popular novel enjoyed German Gottfried Strasburhskoho "Tristan and Isolde," which tell of fervent love of two young people. An important monument of German folk literature XII-XIII centuries. - "Song of the Nibelungs," which narrate about the invasion of the tribes of the Huns in the kingdom of Burgundy at the beginning of V century. Successfully developed in Western Europe and Chivalrous lyric poetry. In Germany it minnezinhery, Menestreli (high love singers) who perform their own compositions. In France, the lyric poetry of courtly reached the top (from Fr. - Yard) poetry of the troubadours, who sang the praises of virtue-vassal knight and perfect love. The object of worship is almost always a married lady - the mistress of the castle. Platonic love Troubadours perceived as higher value compared to carnal love. Sometimes Troubadours themselves performing their works, but often did for them actors jugglers. In the XIII century. the courts of nobles of northern France was spread art truveriv (Fr. - find, invent) - the singers who sang songs of their own creativity. A significant phenomenon in the literature of France XII-XIII centuries. vahantiv was poetry. Stray poets - vahanty (from Lat. - Roving) ridiculed the Catholic church and clergy for lust, hypocrisy, ignorance. The Church is, therefore, persecuted and condemned vahantiv.
The most important monument of English literature XIII. - The famous ballad about Robin Hood, who still remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.Outstanding event of this period can be considered active development of literature in English language. Italian literature was represented by the lyrical poetry - songs, ballads, sonnets, written in Italian. In the middle of the XIII century. in Italy there is a so-called "sweet new style" that celebrates the love of women. The founder of this style - Bologna poet Guido Hvinitselli (1230-1276 years), and most representatives - Florentine Brunetto Latina and Guido Cavalcanti (1259-1300 biennium). At the end of XIII century. appears first prose work in Italian - a collection of short stories, stories which are later used to create the famous Boccaccio "Decameron." In this period of rapidly growing urban literature, which were typical for realistic image of urban everyday life of various strata of the urban population and the emergence of satirical works. Representatives of local literature were Chekko Andzholyeri and Guido Orlando (late XIII century)..
Urban literature testified about a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western society - the urban culture that played a large role in shaping Western civilization in general. The essence of urban culture was reduced to a permanent strengthening of secular elements in all spheres of human existence. Urban Culture was born in France in the XI-XII centuries. During this period she was represented, including works of jugglers, actors, acrobats, musicians and singers that were on city streets, fairs, folk festivals, weddings, christenings and enjoyed great popularity among the people. Even the liturgical drama, is staging Latin biblical scenes, which rozihruvalosya at the church of its ministers, as urban development is becoming more secular. Around the middle of the XII century. theatrical actions played no Latin and French, and not in the church and the city, as is more often performed the townspeople, and plays more and more filled with scenes of everyday urban life.
Theater Arts is actively developing in England, where the XIII century. performances are held in English. It begins to develop a special genre - morality, a morality drama with elements of allegory, in which the principal was a picture of the struggle between good and evil for the soul of man. It involved characters that embody human feelings and qualities - love, prudence, Conquest, Patience, Repentance, avarice, envy, and so on. In England, morality plays, became popular in the XV century.
A new and extremely important fact that evidence of the deepening development of urban culture, was a profane in urban schools. These were private schools, financially independent from the church. The teachers of these schools live by wages that charged to those students. Since that time, is the rapid spread of literacy among the urban population. An outstanding master of the XII century France. was Peter Abelard (1079-1142 years), philosopher, theologian and poet who founded a number of profane schools. He is famous essay, "Yes and no," which developed the question of dialectical logic. In his lectures, which enjoyed extraordinary popularity in the townspeople, he affirmed the primacy of knowledge over faith.
It should be noted that the strong role of the church manifested in architecture, sculpture and painting. As in other spheres of culture, she was acting here as a universal force nakladayuchys the specifics of national cultures. This reflected the peculiarities of architectural forms in mass art, ornaments, etc.. In particular the architecture of Byzantium dominated type of cross-dome of the temple, whose walls were decorated with mosaics. In the tradition of realistic painting of the church combined with elements of conditionality and increasing stylization. Perfect example of architecture of Byzantium - the temple of St. Sophia in Constantinople, whose walls were decorated with beautiful colored mosaics, and the roof finished a huge dome.For Western Europe V century. was characteristic of luxury in architecture and sculpture, moving away from realistic depiction toward stylization and formalism.Plastic art is increasingly moving away from the inherent antiquity realistic direction, acquiring a symbolic character. Thus, Charlemagne in France deployed a grand building, and buildings for its architecture reminiscent of Byzantine buildings. Also to feudal castles were built and the church council. The church building is particularly intensified around 1000 in connection with what was expected, according to the teachings of the church, the end of the world.

The desire to revive the great Roman Empire reflected in architectural tastes era. The massive Romanesque structure symbolized not only the political and cultural continuity of ancient Rome, but also showed the unlimited power of the new rulers of Europe, the omnipotence of the Christian God. This style of architecture called the Romanesque. In the Romanesque style built Notre Dame Cathedral in Poitiers, cathedrals in Toulouse, Orsyvali (France), Cathedral in Oxford, Winchester (England), in Mainz, Worms (Germany), in Florence and Milan (Italy). For sculpture Romanesque style typical complete rejection of realism in the interpretation of nature and the human body. Only the church was in content and wall paintings. From the Byzantine style were borrowed large eyes on the faces that depicted, complete absence of the portrait likeness, artificial poses. Paintings show caste-hierarchical view of the world: saints depicted larger in size than the King and the King - more extensive than his vassals and servants.
In the XII century. include the emergence of new architectural styles - Gothic (from the Italian.- Gothic, under the name of a German tribe), which became, after the Roman style, the second canon of the Middle Ages. Bizarre gothic world has become a reflection of economic and political processes in medieval Europe (more complex structures of society, urban growth, increasing the impact of the third estate, religious war). The first cathedral constructed in the Gothic style in northern France, in the second half of XII century. The basis of a Gothic cathedral - high and slender columns.In this building the wall is not bearing structural elements, they become thinner, they appear very large windows, decorated with brightly colored stained glass.Characteristic feature of Gothic - aspirations of building up. Beautiful Gothic cathedrals built in Paris (Notre-Dame, Saint-Chapelle), Chartres, Bourget, Beauvais, Reims (France). For English Gothic cathedral (in Salisbury, York, Canterbury) were characterized by great length and lower height than the cathedrals on the continent. A masterpiece of Gothic style in the British Isles - is abbatstvo Westminster in London.The architecture of Germany's transition to Gothic was slower than in France and England. Cathedral in Lübeck initiated brick gothic architecture, which later spread widely in Northern Europe. Note that in all the cities of Western Europe's Gothic cathedrals was the most beautiful architectural buildings, and architects, who erected them, enjoyed great respect in his contemporaries.
With the development of Gothic architecture and sculpture are also changing, and painting. The human figures are more realistic, richer range of colors is, colors, everything clearly marked heritage of antiquity. And so, XIII-XIV centuries. are direct precursors of the Renaissance and Renaissance culture.

Questions for self-control:
1. When and by whom was introduced into scientific circulation the term "Middle Ages"?
2. What and how studying medieval theology?
3. What architectural style of Middle Ages you know?
4. What genres of fiction have become widespread in this period?
5. Give a definition of "scholasticism" and define its place in medieval science.
6. In which countries and when the first universities, who founded it?
7. When and why there was a definitive split in world Christianity?
8. How has the development of urban culture in medieval Europe?

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