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The Birth of Naturalism




Although they continued to employ some devices of the older American humorists, a group of comic writers that rose to prominence was different in important ways from the older group. Charles Farrar Browne, David Ross Locke, Charles Henry Smith, Henry Wheeler Shaw, and Edgar Wilson Nye wrote, respectively, as Artemus Ward, Petroleum V. (for Vesuvius) Nasby, Bill Arp, Josh Billings, and Bill Nye. Appealing to a national audience, these authors forsook the regional characterizations of earlier humorists and assumed the roles of less individualized literary comedians. The nature of the humor thus shifted from character portrayal to verbal devices such as poor grammar, bad spelling, and slang, incongruously combined with Latinate words and learned allusions. Most that they wrote was far from good literature, but thousands of Americans in their time and some in later times found these authors vastly amusing.

Known for his stories of the American West, Bret Harte, nevertheless, grew up in the East and spent his last years in England. He was born in Albany, N.Y., on Aug. 25, 1836 and when he was 18, went to California, where he worked at various jobs, teaching, mining, and writing articles. In 1860 he took a job with a San Francisco newspaper and published the first of his sketches. Later, after he became editor of the Overland Monthly, Bret Harte wrote his most famous stories, The Luck of Roaring Camp (1868), and The Outcasts of Poker Flat (1869). Other famous stories by him include The Twins of Table Mountain (1879) and Ingenue of the Sierras (1893). A comic poem, Plain Language from Truthful James (1870) also became quite popular.

Virtually each section of the country and social group had its depicter. Joel Chandler Harris (1848-1908), through his character Uncle Remus, depicted plantation life in the Deep South. George Washington Cable (1844-1925) wrote of Creoles and the bayou country near New Orleans. Indiana was the province of Edward Eggleston (1837-1902), whose Hoosier Schoolmaster (1871) became a favorite. But the pioneer and the leader of the movement was Bret Harte (1836-1902) who was the originator of the American local-color story about the lawless, burly life of early California mining camps.

Bret Harte returned to the East in 1871 a famous man. The Atlantic Monthly paid him a large sum of money to write for them for a year, but Harte soon ran out of fresh ideas. He lectured for a time on California life and then served as consul, first in Crefeld, Germany, and later in Glasgow, Scotland. After 1885, he moved to England and died in London on May 5, 1902.

As the first great success in the local colorist school, Harte for a brief time was perhaps the best known writer in America – such was the appeal of his romantic vision of the gun-slinging West. Outwardly realistic, he was one of the first to introduce low-life characters – cunning gamblers, gaudy prostitutes, and rough robbers – into serious literary works. He got away with this (as had Charles Dickens in England who greatly admired Harte’s work) by showing in the end that these seeming derelicts really had hearts of gold.

Another fine writer of regional fiction during the late 1800'swas Hamlin Garland (1860-1940). Hannibal Hamlin Garland was born near West Salem, Wisconsin, and grew up on farms in Wisconsin, Iowa, and what is now South Dakota.

Garland made his literary reputation with short stories about the harsh lives of prairie farmers and their families. Their lives were made hard by loneliness, unproductive land, bad weather, and an economic system that Garland believed was unjust.

The stories in Main-Traveled Roads (1891), Garland's best book, established him as an important Midwestern supporter of literary realism. For the next several years, he continued to publish stories about what he called the Middle Border, the recently settled raw farmlands not quite on the edge of the frontier. Ending the first period in his career, Garland wrote his finest novel, Rose of Dutcher's Coolly (1895). The work tells the story of a Wisconsin farm girl who becomes a career woman in Chicago.

Later, he began writing popular romances set in the Rocky Mountains, starting with The Spirit of Sweetwater (1898). These novels lack the literary quality of Garland's earlier work, but they portrayed Native Americans with great accuracy and through them Garland became an important advocate of the rights of Native Americans.

Garland devoted the final phase of his career to autobiographical writings. A Son of the Middle Border (1917) is his best autobiographical volume. A Daughter of the Middle Border (1921) won the 1922 Pulitzer Prize for biography.

Many local colorists were women, among them Willa Cather, Kate Chopin, Ellen Glasgow, and Edith Wharton. New England, for instance, was brilliantly pictured in the stories of Sarah Orne Jewett (1849-1909) and Mary E. Wilkins Freeman (1852-1930). Much of the literature of African Americans was also regional in setting, by force of circumstance. Charles Chesnutt and William Wells Brown were such early black novelists. In Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896), the poet and novelist Paul Laurence Dunbar used dialect and humble settings in a blend of pathos and humor. Some of the most powerful writing by black Americans continued the autobiographical tradition started in the Colonial Period, including the outstanding post-Civil War work The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845).

Local color, this influential current in 19th century American literature, clearly rooted in local oral tradition. In ragged frontier villages, on riverboats, in mining camps, and around cowboy campfires far from city amusements, storytelling flourished. Exaggeration, tall tales, incredible boasts, and comic workingmen heroes enlivened frontier literature. These humorous forms were found in many frontier regions – in “the old Southwest” (the present-day inland South and the lower Midwest), the mining frontier, and the Pacific coast. Each region had its colorful characters around whom stories collected: Mike Fink, the Mississippi riverboat brawler; Casey Jones, the brave railroad engineer; John Henry, the steel-driving African American; Paul Bunyan, the giant logger; westerners Kit Carson, the Indian fighter, and Davy Crockett, the scout. Their exploits were exaggerated and enhanced in ballads, newspapers, and magazines. Sometimes, as with Kit Carson and Davy Crockett, these stories were strung together into book form.

Local colorists were also greatly indebted to the work by frontier pre-civil war humorists such as Johnson Hooper and Augustas Longstreet. From them and the American frontier folk came the wild proliferation of comical new American words: “ flabbergasted ” (amazed), “ rampagious ” (unruly, rampaging), “ absquatulate ” (leave), etc. Local boasters, or ‘ring-tailed roarers’ who asserted they were half horse, half alligator, also underscored the boundless energy of the frontier. They drew strength from natural hazards that would terrify lesser men.

I’m a regular tornado ”, one swelled, “ tough as hickory and long-winded as a nor’wester. I can strike a blow like a falling tree, and every lick makes a gap in the crowd that lets in an acre of sunshine. ”

This rich tradition of oral law and humor became a foundation for the most famous American regional novelist of the 19th century, Mark Twain (1835-1910), a self-educated product and depicter of the frontier, a onetime printer and Mississippi River boat pilot. His Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Life on the Mississippi rank high on any list of great American books.

Mark Twain was born Samuel Langhorne Clemens on Nov. 30, 1835, the fourth of five children. His father was a hard worker but a poor provider. The family moved to Hannibal, Mo., on the Mississippi, when young Clemens was 4 years old. It was in this river town that he grew up, and from it he gathered the material for his most famous stories. The character of Judge Carpenter is somewhat like his father; Aunt Polly, his mother; Sid Sawyer, his brother Henry; Huck Finn, a town boy named Tom Blankenship; and Tom Sawyer, a combination of several real boys, including himself.

His father died when Samuel Clemens was 12, and the boy was apprenticed to a printer, a first step toward his career as a writer. In 1857, he apprenticed himself to a riverboat pilot, became a licensed pilot and spent two and a half years at his new trade. River traffic was heavy and the pilot was the most important man aboard the boat. Later, Clemens described his life on the river in his famous autobiographical book Life on the Mississippi.

When the Civil War started, Clemens, a southerner, spent a few weeks during the spring of 1861 in the Confederate militia, and later joined his brother Orion in a trip to the Nevada Territory, where the latter had been appointed territorial secretary. In Nevada, after unsuccessful stock speculation in mining and timberlands and equally unsuccessful prospecting for gold and silver, Samuel became a writer for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise. He signed his contributions "Josh" and delighted in such journalistic hoaxes as an account of "The Petrified Man" and "The Empire City Massacre," tall tales told so plausibly that other newspapers reprinted them as true.

It was in Virginia City on Feb. 3, 1863, that "Mark Twain" was born when Clemens, then 27, signed a humorous travel account with that pseudonym. The new name was a riverman's term for water two fathoms deep which is just barely safe for navigation. The choice of the pen name ‘Mark Twain’ by Samuel Clemens followed the general practice common among Old Southwestern humorists and revealed his literary roots.

In the spring of 1864, Twain left Nevada for California. In San Francisco he met and was encouraged by the author Bret Harte and spent amusing evenings with Charles Farrar Browne, who, under the pseudonym Artemus Ward, was then one of the most popular American humorists and platform lecturers and who encouraged Twain to contribute to a collection of Western sketches that he planned to publish. Twain, however, chose to try his luck in gold mining at Angels Camp. With friends at nearby Jackass Hill, Twain heard the story that he would make famous as The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County. Published in a New York periodical, The Saturday Press, in November 1865, this story was an immediate hit when it was reprinted in newspapers far and wide. Written much in the manner of the Southwestern humor of the period of Clemens' youth, this fine tall tale brought not only his first national fame but also the first approval of his work by several important critics.

Mark Twain's aesthetic was formed by the sketches of the Old Southwestern humorists who published their accounts of hunting, drinking, gambling, courting rituals, horse races, assorted cons, and "low life" pranks in newspapers such as William T. Porter's Spirit of the Times, the New Orleans Delta and Picayune, the St. Louis Reveille, and the Cincinnati News. The Old Southwest – the western sections of the eastern states and what is now roughly the Midwest – proved an excellent ground for tales that confronted the elevated, "proper" diction of a gentleman narrator and the vivid vernacular speech of a ring-tailed roarer. The result was purely masculine humor, one that, by our standards, often seems politically incorrect. Characters such as George Washington Harris's Sut Lovingood were purely misogynist, racist to their bones, anti-Semitic, and eloquent. In their rough frontier environment, a good joke maimed a person, a great joke killed him.

Twain, however, raised their humor to new heights, by introducing worldly realism that dealt with actual places and situations and by developing a style that produced equivalents of American speech never before attempted. When local various local colorists introduced so much dialect that it made their works almost unreadable, Twain invented an idiom that was simultaneously the illusion of actual speech and good literary language.

In 1870, Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon, who eventually modified Twain's exaggerations, sometimes weakening his writings, sometimes actually making them more readable. Twain began turning out a new book every few years and William Dean Howells, editor of the Atlantic Monthly and by that time a highly respected novelist himself, became his close friend and literary adviser.

Twain bought a publishing firm in Hartford, Conn. He earned much money writing, lecturing, and publishing, but spent it on high living and unsuccessful investments, and eventually lost his fortune promoting a typesetting machine. By 1894, his publishing company had failed and he was bankrupt. To retrieve his fortune, Twain set out on a world lecture tour and by 1898 his debts were paid. In the last years before his death in 1910, Mark Twain traveled and spoke much but wrote comparatively little.

Mark Twain's works are of several kinds. The Innocents Abroad (1869) and Roughing It (1872) are books of travel which combine personal anecdotes, description, and humorous comment in a delightful mixture. In these books, Twain sharply satirized tourists who learned what they should see and feel by carefully reading guidebooks. He assumed the role of a keen-eyed, shrewd Westerner who was refreshingly honest and vivid in describing foreign scenes and his reactions to them. Americans liked his idea that a common man could judge the Old World as well as the next man. But the chief attraction of the books was their humor, which readers of the time found delightful. The books showed that Mark Twain had found a method of writing about travel which, though seemingly artless, skillfully employed changes of pace. Serious passages -- history, statistics, description, explanation, and argumentation -- alternated with funny ones. The humor itself was varied, sometimes being in the vein of the Southwestern yarn spinners whom he had encountered when a printer's apprentice, sometimes in that of contemporary humorists such as Artemus Ward and Josh Billings, who chiefly used burlesque and parody, anticlimactic sentences, puns, malapropisms, and other verbal devices. Thereafter he was to use the formula successfully in a number of books combining factual materials with humor.

Twain's interest in the past is seen in The Prince and the Pauper (1882); in the hilarious A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889); and in Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc (1896), which Twain thought his best work.

Favorites with most readers are his Mississippi River books, the most famous being The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). The book is a delightful treatment of a boy's life in a small town, based upon the recollections of his boyhood friends in Hannibal that became an immediate and continuing favorite.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is perhaps Twain's best book for a juvenile audience. The setting was a small Mississippi River town, and the characters were the grownups and the children of the town in the 1830s. The book's nostalgic attitude and its re-creation of pre-Civil War life are humorously spiced by its main character, Tom Sawyer. Rather than being the prematurely moral "model boy" of Sunday-school stories, Tom is depicted as "the normal boy," mischievous and irresponsible but good-hearted; and the book's subplots show him winning triumphs again and again. These happy endings endear the book to children, while the lifelike picture of a boy and his friends is enjoyed by both young and old.

Chronologically next ‘river book’ is Life on the Mississippi (1883) which re-creates vividly the colorful days of steamboating on the great river. But its success was forever overshadowed by Twain’s masterpiece published the next year, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884).

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by general agreement, is Twain's finest book and an outstanding American novel. Its narrator is Huck, a youngster whose carefully recorded vernacular speech is admirably adapted to detailed and poetic descriptions of scenes, vivid representations of characters, and narrative passages that are both broadly comic and subtly ironic. Huck, son of the village drunkard, is uneducated and superstitious; but he also has a native shrewdness, a cheerfulness that is hard to put down, compassionate tolerance, and an instinctive tendency to make the right decisions about important matters. He runs away from his persecuting father and, with his companion, the runaway slave Jim, attempts a long and unsuccessful escape floating down the Mississippi River on a raft.

During the journey Huck meets and comes to know members of greatly varied groups, so that the book memorably portrays almost every class living on or along the river. Huck overcomes his initial prejudices and learns to respect and love Jim. The book's pages are filled with idyllic descriptions of the great river and the surrounding forests and Huck's unconscious humor. But a thread that runs through adventure after adventure is the theme of man's inhumanity to man and human cruelty. Children miss this theme, but adults who read the book with care cannot fail to be impressed by this attitude that was to become a constant theme of the author during his later years.

The popular image of Mark Twain is by now well-established. He is seen as a gruff but knowledgeable, unaffected man who had been places and seen things and was not fooled by pretence. He talked and wrote with appealing humanity and charm in the language of ordinary people. At the same time, he scornfully mocked man; evolution failed, he said, when man appeared, for his was the only evil heart in the entire animal kingdom. Yet Mark Twain was one of those he scorned: what any man sees in the human race, he admitted, " is merely himself in the deep and private honesty of his own heart. " Perceptive, comic, but also bitter, Twain seemed to be the mirror of all men.

Twain's friend and mentor, novelist and critic William Dean Howells (1837-1920), also expressed the philosophy that literary art ought to mirror the facts of human life and, as the editor of the most influential literary magazine The Atlantic Monthly, promoted the work of other realists.

The son of an itinerant printer and newspaper editor, Howells grew up in various Ohio towns and began work early as a typesetter and later as a reporter. Meanwhile, he taught himself languages, becoming well read in German, Spanish, and English classics, and began contributing poems to The Atlantic Monthly. His campaign biography of Abraham Lincoln (1860) financed a trip to New England, where he met the great men of letters, James Russell Lowell, editor of The Atlantic Monthly, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. On Lincoln's victory he was rewarded with a consulship at Venice (1861-1865), which enabled him to marry. On his return to the U.S. he became assistant editor (1866-1871), then editor (1871-1881), of The Atlantic Monthly, in which he began publishing reviews and articles that interpreted American writers. He was a shrewd judge of his contemporaries. He immediately recognized the worth of Henry James, and he was the first to take Mark Twain seriously as an artist.

Their Wedding Journey (1872) and A Chance Acquaintance (1873) were his first realistic novels of uneventful middle-class life. His best known work, The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), deals with a self-made businessman's efforts to fit into Boston society. The novel’s title is ironic and introduces Howells’s main theme. The novel focuses on an ordinary farmer who becomes wealthy because he cheated his partner and moved to Boston. His immoral act deeply disturbed his family, though for years Lapham could not see that he had acted improperly. In the end, his spiritual rise comes about only when he loses his wealth, after choosing bankruptcy instead of unethical success. Like Huckleberry Finn this is an unsuccess story: Lapham’s business fall is his moral rise.

An influential editor and an important public figure, Howells eventually lost his faith in the possibility of a just society and efficient government in America. His deeply shaken social faith is reflected in the novels of his New York period, such as the strongly pro-labor Annie Kilburn (1888) and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890), generally considered his finest work, which dramatizes the teeming, competitive life of New York, where a representative group of characters try to establish a magazine.

Besides being a crusading novelist, Howells was an influential literary critic, whose writings of this period welcomed the young Naturalistic novelists Stephen Crane, and Frank Norris and promoted the European authors Turgenev, Ibsen, Zola, and above all Tolstoy.

As a novelist, critic, and the dean of late 19th-century American Letters, William Dean Howells contributed to the shift from romanticism to realism. Howell’s novels carefully interweave social circumstances with the emotions of ordinary middle-class Americans. Love, ambition, idealism and temptation motivate his characters and Howell is acutely aware of the moral corruption of his characters, business tycoons of the Gilded Age of the 1870s. Howells' best work depicts the American scene as it changed from a simple society of equal opportunities into a society where social and economic gulfs were becoming unbridgeable, and the individual's fate was ruled by chance.

Howells was a champion of realism. Novels, he believed, should present life as it is, not as it might be. Accordingly, his books study types of persons prominent in American life of his time, the 1870s-1880s: working women in Dr. Breen's Practice (1881); the self-made man in The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885); and factory workers and summer resort people, in Annie Kilburn (1889). His books also discuss serious social questions honestly: divorce in A Modern Instance (1882) and social justice in A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889). Taken together, Howells' novels give a full, clear picture of American life in the last years of the 19th century.

Despite a prolific output, Howells's significance rests mostly on his literary criticism and his opposition to provincialism in American literature, rather than his novels. Long before his death Howells was out of fashion. Later critics have more fairly evaluated his enormous influence, and readers have rediscovered the style, humor, and honesty of his best works.

The cosmopolitan writer of American origin residing in Britain, Henry James departed even further from the provincial scene than his friend Howells. James's usual way was to depict Americans in the process of experiencing Europe, thereby contrasting two cultures, the old and the new.

He portrayed expatriate Americans in a European setting in Daisy Miller (1878) and in his triumph of psychological realism, The Portrait of a Lady (1881). Conversely, James presented the reactions of Europeans to a New England background in The Europeans (1878). In The Bostonians (1886) he satirized New England reformers and philanthropists.

In this contrast, the manners of Americans sometimes suffer by comparison with those of Old World aristocrats. Morally, however, James's Americans compare favorably with Europeans. The author saw the good in both groups and was less interested in taking sides than in exploring, in an elaborate and elegant style, the many differences between them. James's fiction is not always easy to read, but it is rich and subtle American literature.

So, the three major novelists of this period stand in an interesting relationship to one another. At one extreme is Mark Twain, self-educated, a product and a depicter of the frontier. At the other extreme is Henry James, wealthy, educated by tutors, a resident in Europe, a man of cosmopolitan tastes. Twain and James were not personally acquainted, but each was a good friend of William Dean Howells, who in several ways embodied both the provincial and the cosmopolitan interests of his two friends.

The novels of Howells and James presented life truthfully as the authors saw it. In the opinion of a later generation, however, their fiction omitted great areas of life: Howells was too polite, too proper; and James was too exclusively concerned with the leisure classes. Several novelists at the turn of the century therefore undertook to portray those sides of life, often ugly, which they felt had not been fully recognized in literature. The extreme realism of their works is referred to as ‘naturalism’ and it invited writers to examine human beings objectively, as a scientist studies nature. In portraying ugliness and cruelty, the authors refrained from preaching about them; rather they left readers to draw their own conclusions about the life so presented. Naturalistic fiction shocked many readers; but in revealing hitherto neglected areas of life, it greatly broadened the scope of fiction.

Frank Norris (1870-1902), was an American novelist and journalist and a leader of the naturalism movement. Norris believed that a novel should serve a moral purpose. " The novel with a purpose," he explained, " brings the tragedies and grieves of others to notice " and " prove(s) that injustice, crime, and inequality do exist. "

Benjamin Franklin Norris, Jr., was born in Chicago and moved to San Francisco with his family in 1884. While attending the University of California from 1890 to 1894, he came under the influence of the French naturalist writer Emile Zola and began to write McTeague, one of his finest novels. Norris then spent a year at Harvard University and wrote part of an unfinished novel, Vandover and the Brute.

In 1895 and 1896, Norris was a reporter in South America for the San Francisco Chronicle and a magazine called the Wave. After returning to San Francisco in 1896 he became assistant editor of the Wave. In 1899, he became a manuscript reader for a publisher in New York City. That year he published McTeague, which tells how economic circumstances, alcoholism, heredity, and chance compel a man to become a murderer.

Norris planned a three-novel series called Epic of the Wheat to tell about the production, distribution, and consumption of wheat in the United States. The Octopus (1901) dramatizes how a railroad controlled a group of California wheat farmers. The book emphasizes the control of "forces," such as wheat and railroads, over individuals or even groups of individuals. It ranks with McTeague as Norris' finest work. Both novels show the author's weakness for melodrama but illustrate his genius for revealing character and writing exciting action scenes. The second volume of the series, The Pit, was published in 1903, after Norris died at the age of 32 following an operation for appendicitis. The final volume, The Wolf, was never written.

Another outstanding naturalist, Stephen Crane (1871-1900), was an American novelist, short-story writer, poet, and journalist. Although he died of tuberculosis at the age of 28, Crane produced a vast number of newspaper articles, more than 100 stories and sketches, two volumes of poetry, and six novels. He pioneered in psychological realism, often exploring thoughts of fictional characters facing death.

Crane was born in Newark, N.J. In 1891, he moved to New York City to work as a free-lance newspaper writer. Crane's observations of slum life inspired his first novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), about a young prostitute driven to suicide. Its subject matter discouraged publishers from accepting the manuscript, so Crane published it at his own expense.

Following a trip to the Great Plains and the South in 1895, Crane wrote two of his finest short stories. The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky (1898) is an unconventional Western showdown between a gunman and a Texas marshal. The Blue Hotel (1898) is an ironic account of an immigrant's death in Nebraska.

After 1896, Crane traveled widely, covering two wars and accepting newspaper assignments. On Jan. 2, 1897, he was shipwrecked off the coast of Florida. The experience provided material for his classic story The Open Boat (1897).

Crane's poetry was collected in The Black Riders and Other Lines (1895) and War Is Kind (1899). His cynical poems anticipate the free verse style of the 1900's.

Crane's greatest novel is The Red Badge of Courage (1895), a story set during the Civil War (1861-1865). It portrays a young Union soldier who undergoes a transformation from cowardice to heroism amidst the noisy confusion and " crimson roar " of the battlefield. Crane based the youth's experiences on conversations with veterans of combat, fictional works, histories of military campaigns, and his vivid imagination. The novel remains a masterpiece of literature about war.




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