E)The letter q, accompanied by uwas introduced to denote two sounds : [k] – quay [ki:] – причал, and [kw] – queen. In OE the cluster [kw] was denoted by the letter combination cw

f) The letter z was introduced to denote the sound [z], but it is not used systematically. Sometimes the sound [z] is spelt s: chesen [t∫ezәn] – (choose); losen [lozәn] – lose.

Let us regard the changes in spelling habits:

a) Under the influence of the French language the sound [u:], which was represented by the letter u in OE, came to be spelt ou. From borrowed French words such as trouble, couch, this spelling was transferred to native English words: hous (<OE hūs), out (<OE ūt), loud (<OE hlūd).

In final position and sometimes in medial position instead of ou the spelling ow was introduced: cow (<OE cū), how (<OE hū), down (<OE dūn).

b) The sound [u] is denoted by the letter o: come [`kumә] (<OE cuman), sone [`sunә] (<OE sunu).

c) The sound [e:] is denoted by ie. From loan French words like chief [t∫e:f], relief [re`le:f] this spelling penetrated into native English words like: field [fe:ld] (<OE fēld), thief [θe:f] (<OE þēof).

In the sphere of consonants French spelling also had some influence:

d) The spelling þ and ð for the sound [θ] and [ð] were superseded by the digraph th: this instead of þis, three instead of þrēo.

e)The affricate [ǽfrikәt] [t∫] was denoted by the digraph ch. From such French loan words as chair, chamber [`t∫eimbә] it penetrated into native English words: techen (teach), child (child), etc.

f) The corresponded voiced affricate [ dჳ] was spelt in the French way either j, g or dg: courage, joy, bridge.

g)The consonant [∫] was spelt sh or sch: ship, schip.

h) The sound [χ] (“г” в русских говорах) was first spelt ჳ and then gh: liჳt-light; niჳt-night.

i) The letter c when denoting the sound [k] was replaced by the letter k before e, i and n: drinken (OE drincan), knowen (OE cnāwan), king (OE cyninჳ ).

j) The sound [ j], which was spelt ჳ in OE, came to be spelt y: yēr, year <OE ჳēar.

Expansion of English. Until the early 17th century English was only spoken in the British Isles. In the early 17th century the English language penetrated into America. In the course of the following centuries it spread over the greater part on North America. In the 18th century it penetrated into India and Canada. Later English appeared in Australia and New Zealand. In the 20th century the English language penetrated into South Africa.

The work of grammarians and orthoepists. In the 17th century a great number of grammarians and orthoepists appeared. They set as their main aim the establishment of correct language forms:

n Alexander Gill Logonomia Anglica (English Word-Law) (1621) -valuable information about the pronunciation of that time.

n Charles Butler “English Grammar (1634) – a modernized and rationalized spelling system.

n John Wallis -important observations of pronunciation.

n Christopher Cooper “Grammatica Anglicana” (1685) – observations about the differences between sounds and letters, a list of homonyms resulting from phonetic change. (He wrote that the following words were pronounced alike: a notion – an ocean, heart – hart (олень, самец), air – heir, etc.)

n Jones “ Practical Phonographer ” (the beginning of the 18th century) - observations of pronunciation.

n William Baker “ Rules for true spelling and writing” (1724) - he noted divergences between pronunciation and spelling and gave lists of words showing such divergences.

n Samuel Johnson - a preface to a Dictionary ( 1755) - a tendency to limit the freedom of phonetic and grammatical variants within the national language. It fully exhibited the English vocabulary; it offered a spelling standard and applied thousands of quotations illustrating the use of words.

By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century the norm of the national literary English language was established.

Questions.

§ When did English penetrate into America?

§ Who expressed the idea to limit phonetic and grammatical variants within the national language?

§ What events contributed to the formation of a unified national language?

§ When was the norm of the national literary English language established?

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