Regional variation in Australian English

Vowels

Examples of short vowels: /ɪ/ in kit, mirror and rabbit, /ʊ/ in put, /e/ in dress and merry, /ʌ/ in strut and curry, /æ/ in trap and marry, /ɒ/ in lot and orange, /ə/ in ago and sofa.

6. Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meats mo closure or narrowing in the mouth pharyngeal and nasal cavaties. On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes changes: 1) in the stability of articulation, 2) in the tongue position, 3) in the lip position, 4) in the character of the vowel end. *+ vowels differ in respect of their length. According to the stability of articulation all vowels are divided into: monophthong, diphthong, diphthongoids. Monoph. are vowels the articulation of which is almost unchanging (ɪ,e,æ,a:,o,ɔ:,ʌ,ɝ:,ə). In the pronunciation of diphth. the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. The starting point, the nucleus, is strong and distinct. The glide is very weak. In fact diphthongs consist of 2 clearly perceptible vowel elements /eɪ,aɪ,ɔɪ,au, ɝu,əu,ɪə,ɛə,uə/. In the pronunciation of diphthongoids /i:, u:/ the articulation is slightly changing but the difference between the strong point and the end is not so distinct as it is in diphth. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and down, thus changing the quality of vowel sounds. According to the tongue position all Eng. vowels are classified into: front (i:,e,æ), front-retracted (ɪ), central (ʌ,ɝ:,ə), back (a:,o,ɔ:u:), back-advanced (u). Besides according to the tongue position all the vowels are divided into: close/i:,ɪ,u,u:/, mid (e,ʌ,ɝ:,ə) and open (æ,a:,o,ɔ:). There’re also broad and narrow variants of close, mid and open vowels. According to the lip position vowels are divided into: rounded (o,ɔ:,u,u:) and unrounded (i:,ɪ,e,æ,a:,ʌ,ɝ:,ə). According to the character of vowel end, vowels can be free and checked. If a vowel (a monopht. or a diphthongoid is followed by a voiceless consonant it is checked like in the words: cart or cut. In the rest cases vowels are free. According to the length all Eng. vowels (with the exception of diphthongs and æ) are generally divided into long (i:,a:,ɔ:,u:,ɝ:) and short (ɪ,e,o,u,ʌ,ə).

22. The term 'Estuary English' was coined as long ago as 1984 by David Rosewarne, an EFL teacher. EE is the form of colloquial English language which combines features of correct speech (so-called “queen’s English”) and the elements of the deformed pronunciation in many respects borrowed from “Cocney", on which told the working classes and the other bottoms of a society in London. Estuary English has arisen as a mixture of the dialects used in the southeast and the east of England, especially, along the Thames river and in its mouth (from here is the name) where these two areas were crossed. To speak on EE always was considered as a bad form and illiteracy, however recently this form of language has gained a huge distribution among the British youth, figures of the mass-media, many known politicians, stars of show business.The other name of EE is “mockney” as it represents a parody on cockney, but without its rhymed word-play with the help of which "Cocney" is so widely known outside of England. Practically without changing correct English grammar, Estuary English which roots originate from standard RP, make an emphasis on distortion this initially clear pronunciation, and also some lexical loans from slang. And if earlier Estuary English was a prerogative of working classes now many people, especially in the youth surroundings, consider that its use make their speech more graceful. To speak on EE in certain circles is not only shameful, but also fashionable. We can hear it in the House of Commons and among members of Lords Chamber. EE always was and remains to this day purely British accent, therefore having heard it in America, it is possible to do safely a conclusion that the speaker has arrived from England, and more often they are from London. One of vivid examples of carriers estuary English is Selli Gannel, ex-Olympic sportswoman and the TV presenter of the Fourth channel and channel BBS. Features:1sound replacement ‘st’ (station, estuary, Christian) and ‘str’ (strike, industrial, instruction) on a sound ‘sh’ as in a word she.2changes of some vowel sounds and diphthongs, way is said as вай, say-сай.RP 1.ignoring letter ‘r’ in such words as hard, water 2.sound loss‘t’ in the middle of the word or glottal stop. Quite nice will sound as квай найс 3.vocalized letter ‘l’ sounding as ‘w’in milk-мивк, football-фубау 4.sound replacement ‘th’ depending on a word on sounds ‘f’-ф.Something will be said as самфинг

7.The phonological analysis of English consonant sounds helps to distinguish 24 phonemes: [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, ж, h, t∫, dж, m, n, ŋ, w, r, 1, j]. Principles of classification suggested by Russian phoneticians provide the basis for establishing of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of English consonants:

Degree of noise (bake - make, veal – wheel); Place of articulation (labial vs. lingual pain — cane; lingual vs. glottal foam — home, care — hair, Tim – him); Manner of articulation(occlusive vs. constrictive pine -fine, bat - that, bee – thee constrictive vs. affricates fare — chair, fail -jail

constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same – shame); Work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation (voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis pen — Ben, ten - den, coat – goal) Position of the soft palate (oral vs. nasal pit — pin, seek — seen)

There are some problems of phonological character in the English consonantal system; it is the problem of affricates - their phonological status and their number. The question is: what kind of facts a phonological theory has to explain.

1) Are the English [t∫, dж] sounds monophonemic entities or biphonemic combinations (sequences, clusters)?

2) If they are monophonemic, how many phonemes of the same kind exist in English, or, in other words, can such clusters as [tr, dr] and [tθ, dð] be considered affricates?

To define it is not an easy matter. One thing is clear: these sounds are complexes because articulatory we can distinguish two elements. Considering phonemic duality of affricates, it is necessary to analyze the relation of affricates to other consonant phonemes to be able to define their status in the system.

23. PRONUNCIATION.

The Northern dialect closely resembles the southern–most Scottish dialects. It retains many old Scandinavian words, such as bairn for child, and not only keeps its r's, but often rolls them. The most outstanding version is Geordie, the dialect of the Newcastle area.

-er > [æ], so father > [fædhæ].

[ou] > [o:], so that boat sounds like each letter is pronounced.

talk > [ta:k].

work > [work].

book > [bu:k].

our > wor.

you in plural > youse.

A short [a] in words like ask, grass, bath, where Southern accents have a broad A [ɑː].

[i] sounds like [i:] > city [siti:].

[a:] > [æ] > dance [dæns].

[ei] > [ie] > bay [be:].

[3:] > [ɔ:] > first [f ɔ:st].

[ai] > [εi] > right [rεit].

[aʊ] > [u:] > about [əbu:t].

8.Diphthongs are defined differently by different authors. One definition is based on the ability of a vowel to form a syllable. Since in a diphthong only one element serves as a syllabic nucleus, a diphthong is a single sound. Another definition of a diphthong as a single sound is based on the instability of the second element. The 3d group of scientists defines a diphthong from the accentual point of view: since only one element is accented and the other is unaccented, a diphthong is a single sound.D. Jones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of which the organs of speech start from one position and then glide to another position.

N.S. Trubetzkoy states that a diphthong should be (a) unisyllabic, that is the parts of a diphthong cannot belong to two syllables; (b) monophonemic with gliding articulation; (c) its length should not exceed the length of a single phoneme. Problem of length. There are long vowel phonemes in English and short. However, the length of the vowels is not the only distinctive feature of minimal pairs like Pete -pit, beet - bit, etc. In other words the difference between i: i. u: - υ is not only quantitative but also qualitative, which is conditioned by different positions of the bulk of the tongue. For example, in words bead- bid not only the length of the vowels is different but in the [i:] articulation the bulk of the tongue occupies more front and high position then in the articulation of [i].

Qualitative difference is the main relevant feature that serves to differentiate long and short vowel phonemes because quantitative characteristics of long vowels depend on the position they occupy in a word:

(a) they are the longest in the terminal position: bee, bar, her;

(b) they are shorter before voiced consonants: bead, hard, cord;

(c) they are the shortest before voiceless consonants: beet, cart.

24. Scottish English is the varieties of English spoken in Scotland. It may or may not be considered distinct from the Scots language. Te speech of the middle classes in Scotland tends to conform to the grammatical norms of the written standard, particularly in situations that are regarded as formal. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the Lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, and lexically influenced by a Gaelicsubstratum. While pronunciation features vary among speakers (depending on region and social status), there are a number of phonological aspects characteristic of Scottish English: Scottish English is a rhotic accent, meaning /r/ is pronounced in the syllable coda. /or/ and /ur/ are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour and poor. /r/ before /l/ is strong. An epenthetic vowel may occur between /r/ and /l/ so that girl and world are two-syllable words for some speakers. The same may occur between /r/ and /m/, between /r/ and /n/, and between /l/ and /m/. There is a distinction between /w/ and /hw/ in word pairs such as witch and which. Vowel length is generally regarded as non-phonemic, although a distinctive part of Scottish English is the Scots vowel length rule (Scobbie et al. 1999). Certain vowels (such as /i/, /u/, and /æ/) are generally long but are shortened before nasals and voiced plosives.

This is the speech of the Scots, those who live in the northern part of the island of Britain. Scots tend to say "nae" for "not." So, instead of the word "cannot," the Scots would say "cannae." Similarly, "do not" becomes "dinnae," and so forth. Instead of the word "understand" Scots use the word "ken." This word is also occasionally used to substitute for "know," as in "I dinnae ken where the fellow be." Where an Englishman might say "lad" or "lass," a Scot will use the diminutive "laddie" or "lassie." A Scot might use these terms for adults, as well. Scots will also use "ye" instead of "you." Scots will use the word "wee" for "little" or "small."

9. Accordingto Russian specialists in English phonetics, there are two affricates in English: [t∫, dж]. D. Jones points out there are six of them: [t∫, dж], [ts, dz], and [tr, dr]. A.C. Gimson increases their number adding two more affricates: [tθ, tð]. Russian phoneticians look at English affricates through the eyes of a phoneme theory, according to which a phoneme has three aspects: articulatory, acoustic and functional, the latter being the most significant one. As to British phoneticians, their primary concern is the articulatory-acoustic unity of these complexes.

Before looking at these complexes from a functional point of view it is necessary to define their articulatory indivisibility.

According to N.S. Trubetzkoy's point of view a sound complex may be considered monophonemic if: a) its elements belong to the same syllable; b) it is produced by one articulatory effort; c) its duration should not exceed normal duration of elements.the finding that there are eight affricates in English [t∫], [dж], [tr], [dr], [ts], [dz], [tð], [dθ] is consistent with articulatory and acoustic point of view, because in this respect the entities are indivisible.

25. Northern English is a group of dialects of the English language. It includes the North East England dialects, which is similar in some respects to Scots. The Northern dialect closely resembles the southern–most Scottish dialects. It retains many old Scandinavian words. -er > [æ], so father > [fædhæ].talk > [ta:k].work > [work].book > [bu:k].

our > wor. you in plural > youse.

The absence of the [ʌ] vowel, for which the [ʊ] vowel is substituted. This has led to Northern England being described "Oop North".

A short [a] in words like ask, grass, bath, where Southern accents have a broad A [ɑː].[i] sounds like [i:] > city [siti:].[a:] > [æ] > dance [dæns].[ei] > [ie] > bay [be:].[3ʊ] > [ʊo] > boat [bʊot].[3:] > [ɔ:] > first [f ɔ:st].[ai] > [εi] > right [rεit].[aʊ] > [u:] > about [əbu:t].

In informal situations we may observe certain phonetic modifications: accidental assimilations (give me /gimmi/, let me /lemmi/), non-standard elisions (phonetics /f’netiks/, the next day /DE'neksdei/), the simplification of the diphthongs – the omission of glides (take it /‘tekit/, I’m /am/).

‑In formal situations speech sounds are realized very distinctly. Assimilations and elisions are only established. There is no simplification of the diphthongs.

The social function of speech sounds also signifies one’s origin. That is the place a person comes from. A representative of Cockney dialect pronounces insread of milk /milk/ - milk /mivk/; lady /leidi/ - lady /laidi/.

10.Sounds in actual speech are seldom pronounced by themselves. To pronounce a word consisting ofmore than one sound, it is necessary to join the sounds together in the proper way. There exist several types of junction, some of which are common to all or many languages, while others are characteristic of individual languages. Every speech-sound pronounced in isolation has 3stages of articulation.1-the on-glide, or the initial stage,2-the retention(сохран)-stage, or the medial stage,3-the off-glide, or the final stage. First- the organs of speech move away from a neutral position to lake up the position necessary for the pronunciation of a consonant or a vowel. It produces noaudible (слышим) sound. Second- organs of speech are kept for some time either in the same position necessary to pronounce the sound or move from one position to another. Third -the organs of speech move away to a neutral position. The off-glide of most sounds is not audible, the exception being plosives whose off-glide produces the sound of plosion before a vowel and in a word-final position before a pause. Merging of stages is a simpler and looser way of joining sounds together. It usually takes place if two adjacent sounds of a different nature are joined together. The end of the first sound and the beginning of the second are articulated almost simultaneously(одновр). Interpenetration of stages usually takes place when consonants of a similar or identical nature are joined. In this case the end of the first sound penetrates not only into the beginning but also into the middle part of the second sound, as in [ækt] act, [begd] begged.

26. A working-class Londoner, especially in the East End, and English as used by such a Londoner. Bow Bells. Пропуск звука [h]. Например, «not 'alf» вместо «not half».Использование «ain’t» вместо «isn’t» или «am not».Произношение звука [θ] как [f] (например, «faas’nd» вместо «thousand») и [ð] как (v) (например, «bover» вместо «bother»).Превращение [aʊ] в [æː], например, «down» произносится как [dæːn].Использование рифмованного сленга. Например, «feet» — «plates of meat», вместо «head» — «loaf of bread»; иногда такие словосочетания сокращаются, образуя новое слово: «loaf» вместо «loaf of bread».Использование гортанной смычки ʔ вместо 't' между гласными или сонантами (если второй из них не ударный): bottle = «бо'л». Использование вместо [r] губно-зубного [ʋ], на слух напоминающего [w].Произношение «тёмного» l как гласного: Millwall как [mɪowɔː] «миоуо».

Use of the glottal stop as an allophone of /t/ in various positions, including after a stressed syllable. Glottal stops also occur, albeit less frequently for /k/ and /p/, and occasionally for mid-word consonants. For example, Richard Whiteing spelt "Hyde Park" as Hy' Par'. Like and light can be homophones. "Clapham" can be said as Cla'am. /t/ may also be flapped intervocalically. London /p, t, k/ are often aspirated in intervocalic and final environments, e.g., upper, utter, rocker, up, out, rock, where RP is traditionally described as having the unaspirated variants. Also, in broad Cockney at least, the degree of aspiration is typically greater than in RP, and may often also involve some degree of affrication. Affrication may be encountered in initial, intervocalic, and final position. This feature results in Cockney being often mentioned in textbooks about Semitic languages while explaining how to pronounce the glottal stop. Grammatical features Use of me instead of my, for example, "At's me book you got 'ere". Cannot be used when "my" is emphasised (i.e., "At's my book you got 'ere" (and not "his")). Use of ain't instead of isn't, am not, are not, has not, and have not. Use of double negatives, for example "I didn't see nothing." Most of the features mentioned above have, in recent years, partly spread into more general south-eastern speech, giving the accent called Estuary English; an Estuary speaker will use some but not all of the Cockney sounds Some of the features may derive from the upper-class pronunciation of late 18th century London, such as the use of "ain't" for "isn't" and the now lost reversal of "v" and "w" (as noted by Dickens regarding Sam Weller/Veller).

11. Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjoining vow­el or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool.

When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or care­less speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v].

Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pro­nunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical.

Assimilation can be:

1progressive, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/.

2regressive, e. g. in the combination at th e the alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / ð / which follows it;

3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/.

When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articula­tion and the manner of noise production.

27. Southern E. The accents of this region are uniformly nonrhotic, that is, the sound [ɹ] occurs only before vowels. Before consonants and in word-final position it is dropped, for example far /fɑ:/, farm /fɑ:m/. London accent include:1.diphthongal realization of /i:/ and /u:/, for example beat [bɪit] 2.diphthongal realization of /ɔ:/ in open syllables, for example bore [bɔə], board [bo:d], pause [po:z]. 3.lengthening of /æ/ in a few words such as man, sad, bag etc.,

4.an allophone of /əʊ/ before "dark L" ([ɫ]), namely [ɒʊ], for example whole [hɒʊɫ] versus holy [həʊli].

Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire: 1.The diphthong /aɪ/ (as in price) realised as [ʌɪ] or [ɔɪ], sounding more like the diphthong in RP choice. 2.The diphthong /aʊ/ (as in mouth) realised as [ɛʊ], 3.The vowel /ɒ/ (as in lot) realised as an unrounded vowel [ɑ], 4.In traditional West Country accents, the voiceless fricatives /s/,/f/,/θ/,/ʃ/ (as in sat, farm, think, shed) are often voiced to [z],[v],[ð],[ʒ], giving pronunciations like "Zummerzet" for Somerset, "varm" for farm, "zhure" for sure. 5.In the Bristol area a vowel at the end of a word is often followed by an intrusive dark l, [ɫ]. Evil=Eva.

12. The accommodated sound does not change its main phonemic features and is pronounced as a variant of the same phoneme slightly modified under the influence of a neighbouring sound. In modern English there are three main types of accommodation.
(1) An unrounded variant of a consonant phoneme is replaced by its rounded variant under the influence of a following rounded vowel phoneme, as at the beginning of the following words:
[ti:] tea [tu:] too [les] less [lu:s] loose [ПАП] none [nu:n] noon
(2) A fully back variant of a back vowel phoneme is replaced by its slightly advanced (fronted) variant under the influence of the preceding mediolingual phoneme [j]. Cf.
Fully back variant'of [u:] Fronted variant of [u:] [<bu:ti] booty, ['bju:ti] beauty, [mu:n] moon, ['mjuizik] music
(3) A vowel phoneme is represented by its slightly more open variant before the dark [i] under the influence of the latter's back secondary focus. Thus the vowel sound in belt, tell is slightly more open than the vowel in bed, ten (cf. [bet] —[bed], [te}] —[ten]).
Elision. In rapid colloquial speech certain notional words may lose some of their sounds (vowels and consonants). This phenomenon is called elision. Elision occurs both within words and at word boundaries, e.g. phonetics [fou'netiks] [f'netiks],mostly fjmoustli] ['mousli], all right [b:l 'raitf [b:rait], next day ['nekst 'dei] ["'neks fdei]
A synonym for elision is syncope, the opposite of elision is epenthesis.

A special form of elision called ecthlipsis is used in Latin poetry when a word ending in the letter "m" is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, e.g., "...et mutam nequiquam adloquerer cinerem." = "...et mutam nequiquadloquerer cinerem." - Catullus

The omission of a word from a phrase or sentence is not elision but ellipsis or, more accurately, elliptical construction

Phonetic vowel reduction refers to phonetic effects on vowels of reductions in other phonetic dimensions -- that is, to the changes in phonetic vowel quality associated with decreased stress, sonority, duration, loudness, or articulatory effort. Vowel quality is a crucial phonetic variable because the identity of a vowel phoneme is perceived via the phonetic quality of its phonetic realization. The effects of reduction on acoustic vowel quality are largely unknown (though, once again, see Delattre 1968). Particular proposals exist for certain limited circumstances, but no general picture of reduction effects has been given.

Vowel graduation of this kind is a phenomenon of general phonetics: when a syllable is so short that the tongue cannot physically move to a vowel target before a return gesture begins, then undershoot occurs.

28. 1. no opposition between historically long and historically short. 2. [i] may be obscured as in rabbit [rэеbэt]

3.[έ] – lower than the RP [e]

4. [эе] – long, mostly nasaliezed, may turn into [e] as in marry, [эе] may be used instead of [a:], ask, past

5.[3] - retroflex какуминальный согласный in medial and terminal position, bird, better

6.[i:] – ‘barred’ препятствовать [i] in sister, horses

7. [a] instead of[o], doll, rob

8.o]instead of [o:] as in law

9.[Λ] turns into [3^r], e.g. [h3^ri] – hurry

.10.in GA the distinction between monopthongs and diphthongs is not very consistent.2.the GA [r] is more sonorous than the RP [r]. It is retroflex.3.[l]– predominantly преимущественно dark4.[t] – short, voiced, intermediate between [d] and [t]5.glottal stop?6.[h]–voiced in intervocalic position, lost initially in unsterssed or weak forms within внутри a phrase.7. [ju] may change into [t∫, dЗ ] in due, tune8. [∫] – vocalized in asia9. nasal twang налет as in man.

13. There are different points of view on syllable formation which are the following. 1. The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. This theory is primitive and insufficient since it does not take into consideration consonants which also can form sylla­bles in some languages, neither does it explain the boundary of syllables. 2. The expiratory theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are expiration pulses. The borderline between the syllables is, according to this theory, the moment of the weakest expiration. This theory is inconsistent because it is quite possible to pronounce several syllables in one articulatory effort or expiration, e.g. seeing. 3. The sonority theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are peaks of prominence or sonority.Thought the basic phonological elements are phonemes, human intercommunication is actualized in syllables. The syllable as a unit is difficult to define thought native speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllables there are in a particular word.The syllable can be a single word: chair, a part of a word: English, a part of the grammatical form of a word: later. It is very important to observe correct syllable division when necessity arises to divide a word in writing. Division of words into syllables in writing (syllabographs) is based on morphological principles. The morphological principle of word division in orthography demands that the part of a word, which is separated, should be either a prefix, or a suffix, or a root (morphograph): un-divided, utter-ance, pun-ish, be-fore.

29. the varieties of American pronunciation. the eastern type, the southern type(vowel draul), the western or General American. B:more-mo:, A:mo:r; broad A-bath,dance-бабочка, bottle-bo?l-glottal stop; B:were-we:,A:wo:r,relarive length [i] in seat,бабочка-tensing-yes, I can-B:бабочка,A:[ke en];3 RP vowels[o]-short,[a:],бабочка correspond to 2 in AmE-[a] and бабочка,RP:dog-with short o,path [pa:ф], AmE-с бабочкой.diphthongs:[ei] is closer,[eu] not front,[au]-more advanced. Nothern: dropping[j]:new-[nju:],[nu:],the flapping [t] and [d] before ending-er, greater[greiter], grader[greider];the flapping of [o] and [ou] horse[ho:s]-hoarse[hous], for[fo:]-four[fou]. ”wh” as in Canadian pronunciation.

14. Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more or less prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, constituting the nuclear tone. The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is strongest – it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail. Partial stresses in the prehead are most frequently of a low variety, high partial stress can occur before a low head. Words given partial stress do not lose prominence completely, they may retain the whole quality of their vowels. In tone-groups stress may undergo alternations under the influence of rhythm, but there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance. Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed:

Nouns. Adjectives. Numerals. Interjections. Demonstrative pronouns. Emphatic pronouns. Possessive pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject). Indefinite negative pronouns some, any (expressing quality). Deferminatives: all, each, every, other, either, both. Proclitics: much, many, a little, a few. Notional verbs. Auxiliary verbs (negative contracted forms). Two-word prepositions. Two-word conjunctions. Particles: only, also, too, even, just.The word that are usually unstressed:

Personal pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns. Relative pronouns (conjoint form). Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object). Indefinite pronouns some, any (when expressing quality). Auxiliary verbs (affirmative form). One-word prepositions and conjunctions. Articles. Particles: there, to. Modal verbs (contracted forms and general questions are exceptions).

The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they are stressed or unstressed, e.g. You may go – possibility. You may go – permission.

30. Canadian English (CanE, en-CA[1]) is the variety of English used in Canada. More than 26 million Canadians (85% of the population) have some knowledge of English (2006 census). Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American rules. Most notably, French-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, usually retain British spellings (colour, honour and centre), although enter has not been spelled as entre, even in England, for centuries. While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense (noun), Canada uses the British spelling defence. (Note that defensive is universal.)In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like tire and curb, which in British English are spelled tyre and kerb. Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse. (The etymological convention that verbs derived from Greek roots are spelled with -ize and those from Latin with -ise is preserved in that practice. Some nouns take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice is a noun and practise is a verb. Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonant when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British) travelled, counselling, and controllable (always doubled in British, sometimes in Canadian) to American traveled, counseling, and controllable (only doubled when stressed). (Both Canadian and British English use balloted and profiting.)

15. Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental, or prosodic features of speech: I. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. timbre (voice quality). The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive. There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, L. Armstrong, I. Ward, R. Kingdon. Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional "blocks". They pay much attention to these "blocks" but not to the way they are connected. Intonation is treated by them. The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tone is the third unit in Halliday's system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker. Halliday's theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation.

Semantic syntactic(al) euphonic alternation.

Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: broad, general and cultivated. They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the social class or educational background of the speaker. Broad Australian English is recognisable and familiar to English speakers around the world because it is used to identify Australian characters in non-Australian films and television programs (often in the somewhat artificial "stage" Australian English version). Examples are film/television personalities Steve Irwin and Paul Hogan. Slang terms ocker, for a speaker, and Strine, a shortening of the word Australian for the dialect, are used in Australia. The majority of Australians speak with the general Australian accent. This predominates among modern Australian films and television programmes and is used by, for example, Eric Bana, Dannii Minogue and Hugh Jackman. Cultivated Australian English is spoken by some within Australian society, for example Cyril Ritchard, Geoffrey Rush and Judy Davis. There are no strong variations in accent and pronunciation across different states and territories. Regional differences in pronunciation and vocabulary are small in comparison to those of the British and American English, and Australian pronunciation is determined less by region than by social, cultural and educational influences. There is some subtle regional variation. In Tasmania and Queensland, words such as "dance" and "grant" are usually heard with the older pronunciation of these words, using [æː]. Australian English is a non-rhotic accent and it is similar to the other Southern Hemisphere accents (New Zealand English and South African English). The vowels of Australian English can be divided into two categories: long and short vowels. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, mostly correspond to the lax vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation. The long vowels, consisting of both monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to its tense vowels and centring diphthongs. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a phonemic length distinction: that compresses, shortens or removes these features. In colloquial speech intervocalic /t/ undergoes voicing and flapping to the alveolar tap[ɾ] after the stressed syllable and before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic /l/, though not before syllabic /n/ (bottle vs button[batn]), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else, whatever). In formal speech /t/ is retained. Intervocalic /nt/ in fast speech can be realised as [n], another trait shared other varieties of English at the colloquial or dialect level, though in formal speech the full form /nt/ is retained. This makes winter and winner homophones in fast speech. 1999 was a great year for EFL teachers in Australia to illustrate this: "nineen-niny-nine".

16. In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations in the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise. A rising tone on the contrary expresses uncertainty, incompleteness or dependence. A falling-rising tone may combine the falling tone's meaning of assertion, certainty with the rising tone's meaning of dependence, incompleteness. The tempo of speech is the third component of intonation. The term tempo implies the rate of the utterance and pausation. The rate of speech can be normal, slow and fast. The parts of the utterance which are particularly important sound slower. Unimportant parts are commonly pronounced at a greater speed than normal. Intonation is a complex formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo(all 3 - prosody). Actualized syntagms are called intonation groups. Pitch has 3 parameters: direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range. Pitch and loudness are not separated. 1 of the syllables has the greater prominence than the others and forms the nucleus. The most important nuclear tones: Low/High Fall, Low/High Rise, Fall-Rise, +Rise-Fall, Rise-Fall-Rise. Low-level tone is very characteristic of reading poetry. Mid-Level – common in spontaneous speech. As for intonational meaning, they distinguish 2 approaches:1) contour, 2) level/register approach. As for the pitch it can be also called a melody. There’re some other intonation units: 1)sense group – semantic approach, 2)breath group, 3)tone group, 4) pitch and stress patterns. The scale is organized graphically. The main parts of intonational group are: the scale and the nucleus. The scale can be neutral. Descending (stepping, falling, scandent, sliding, accidential rise), ascending (very imotional: rising, climbing) and the level-scale(high, mideum, low). The pitch ranges are generally distinguished: normal, wide and narrow.

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