Lecture 7. Subject: Culture of Europe of the nineteenth century

Plan
1. Socio-political and scientific developments in the nineteenth century, their impact on the spiritual and cultural processes.
2. Leading art styles, trends and currents in the artistic culture of the nineteenth century.

Basic concepts: the bourgeois-democratic revolution, industrial revolution, advances in science and technology, atheistic tendencies, romantic style, realism in art, veryzm in music, naturalism, decadence, symbolism, impressionism, postimpressionism.

7.1. In the development of European literature, art and science of the XIX century. was the time of occurrence of works that have a huge heritage of culture and conquest of human genius, although the conditions of development were complex and contradictory. Factors that influence the basic processes and areas of art, were diverse. They include, in particular, changes in physical, economic relations, in public and political life, in spiritual and religious development in developing education and science and industrial revolution and its results. Especially emphasize that the XIX century. - A period of bourgeois-democratic revolutions in many countries of Europe that led to the establishment of the capitalist economic system based on freedom of establishment, on the use of hired labor in all industries. Simultaneously, significant changes in forms of government. It is in the XIX century. formed Western industrial civilization, industrial revolution was completed, which led to change the social structure and the transition to industrial-type employment. The demolition of the old social structures, industrialization and rapid urbanization are the driving force that brought the broad masses of new relationships, accustomed to their new way of life, rhythm of labor discipline. At the same time significantly increased the total literacy, education, qualifications of the population of Europe and North America, where they have become extremely zapotrebuvanymy quality people. In addition, XIX century.was sometimes continuous revolutionary upheavals in science, primarily concerned prosperity and natural, creating a unified system of science. During these years, strengthened communication of science to production, considerable development of philosophical thought, traced the general interest in historical science, has progressed linguistics, archeology, laid the foundation of scientific literature and art.
It should be noted that the strengthening of atheistic tendencies in society leads to a serious crisis the church - to penetrate new European religion, born the concept of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization. All this undermines the influence of religion as an integrating factor, changing nature of social ties.
7.2. Final day of modern times was very fruitful and rich in events in the art of Europeans. First we should mention about the phenomenon of romanticism. This ideological and artistic direction that developed throughout Europe and North America was reflected in the various fields of science, literature and art.Representatives of the romantic movement showed great interest in the national past, often idealized him to the traditions of folklore and culture of other nations, they sought to create a universal picture of the world. His growth and prosperity romanticism reached in 20-30s of the XIX century. Romanticism was the true homeland of Germany. Tops art romanticism reached Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (1776-1822). His works and sarcasm inherent drama, lyricism and grotesque, he was critical of perceived reality of life. Hoffman - one of the founders of German Romantic music aesthetics and criticism, the author of one of the first romantic opera "Ondine."Hoffman's poetic images inspired composers Robert Schumann, Jacques Offenbach, Tchaikovsky (ballet "The Nutcracker").
In the first half of XIX century created Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), great poet of Germany. His poetry demonstrates that his irony was a form of disappointment in romantic hopes of youth and a means of debunking illusions. In his works Heine draws on folk songs and developing her motives, German poet achieves naturalness, clarity and simplicity. In his poems and prose poet ridiculed response, defended the rights of everyone to express their opinions. In England, became a huge influence action lyrical romanticism of George Gordon Noel Byron (1788-1824). His poem "Childe Harold Pilgrimage" brought to life a romantic rebel, individualist, Byron wrote poems are philosophical - drama "Manfred" and "Cain." One of the best works of Byron found a novel in verse "Don Giovanni", although it remained unfinished. The poet took part in the movement Carbonari in Italy in the struggle for the freedom of Greece, where he died. Active humanism, love of freedom, made a prophetic prediction Byron master minds of the then Europe.
In the first third of the XIX century Romanticism was the main focus in the literature of France. In the first phase of its represented Francois Rene de Shatobrian (1768-1848). As in all his works contain polemics with the ideas of the Enlightenment and revolution, in his treatise "The Spirit of Christianity" praised "the beauty of religion" and declared Catholicism the foundation and meaning of art, Shatobriana belong to the conservative wing of Romanticism. How romantic substantiated Germaine de Stael (1766-1817), supporter of liberal ideas, defender of women's rights to freedom of feelings. It defended the principle of political freedom. Montesquieu schoolgirl, she dreamed of "enlightened republic", led by scholars and writers. Two major French writers of the XIX century. considered representatives of progressive romanticism - Victor Hugo, and G. Sand. Victor Hugo (1802-1885) formulated the principles of the new romantic drama in 1827, he advocated freedom and naturalness, against the strict separation of genres that zatverdylysya in classicism, acknowledged mixing comic and tragic. His creative heritage is vmischyuyetsya dozens of volumes. Hugo - the greatest poet of the XIX century. He playwright whose plays have become subjects for outstanding opera libretto. Famous Writer Hugo ("Notre Dame", "Workers of the sea," "The Man Who Laughs"), occupies a special place novel "Les Miserables", which raised the most acute social problems of the XIX century.Criticizing the shortcomings of society, a Hugo remains humanistic positions, without losing faith in the possibility of moral degeneration of man. Jorda Sand (Aurora Dyudevan, 1804-1876) raised in his novels ("Indiana", "Konsuelo", "Miller with Anzhibo") burning social issues - the situation of women in family and society, bourgeois morality, selfishness owners, depicting a sympathetic hero of the people.
In music romantic trend was an unusually rich in outstanding talent, especially in Germany. This is a German composer, music critic, the impersonation of aesthetic romanticism Robert Schumann (1810-1856) - creator software piano cycles ("Butterflies", "Carnival," "Fantastic play"), lyrical and dramatic song cycle. The first representative of the Romantic opera in Germany was with Hoffmann and K. Weber (1786-1826). In Weber's work reflected the desire of the German people to liberation and reunification. He defines the main directions of German opera: the legendary folk and fairy-tale opera. Romantic trend represented in the works of German composer, conductor, music writer, reformer of opera by Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The famous and widely known for his opera "The Flying Dutchman," "Lohengrin," "Tristan and Isolde." Wagner Operas - a huge vocal and symphonic poems, which have no analogues in the history of opera. Music Wagner different great expressiveness, orchestral and harmonic richness. His work is determined by the postulates formulated his "holistic work of art" because of all the arts - music, poetry, acting, dance, painting and architecture. In his operas he combined music, nature, romantic craving for freedom and national pathos.
In France, the representative of the romantic movement in art music - composer and conductor Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), author of "Fantastic Symphony", "Funeral, triumphal symphony" opera-dilogy "Troy" Requiem, dramatic symphony "Romeo and Juliet." Romantic Ideas reflected in the works of Hungarian composer, pianist, conductor Franz Liszt (1811-1886). He created oratorio "Faust-Symphony", 13 programmatic symphonic poems, 19 rhapsodies, etudes, waltzes and some 70 other musical works. He is also founder of the genre of symphonic poems. Representative romantic trend was a Polish composer and pianist Frederic Chopin (1810-1849). He has composed two concerts, three sonatas, four ballads, scherzo, a number of impromptu, nocturne, etudes, songs, polonaise. His piano works are characterized by variability of moods, Feather harmonies and rhythms.
The great thing about the phenomenon of Romanticism - works of French painter Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). In the works of Delacroix with restless imagination images pronounced history, Oriental, classical and contemporary literature ("The capture of Constantinople by crusaders"). Delacroix is ​​considered the creator of historical painting in modern times.
The architecture of the XIX century. Romanticism did not create its own school, but in industrialized countries, especially in England, begins to rapidly develop industrial architecture. Constructed of 30-40s of the XIX century. stations, bridges, factories sometimes involved the decision, typical of the late XIX century. Rapid urban growth has led to the need to redevelop older neighborhoods and building new avenues and transportation arteries.
Especially vivid expression of romanticism was in the ballet. Romantic ballet was formed in France at the turn of the second third of the XIX century. and has been extended throughout Europe.
Thus, the whole romanticism promoted more profound knowledge of reality, many sided artistic generalization process of human development and the world with all their inherent contradictions. He enriched the world culture in its eternal values ​​spiritual values ​​and paved new ways for its development.
In 30-40s of the XIX century with romanticism in literature and art confirmed realism to the middle of XIX century. becomes the dominant trend in European culture.Realism in literature and art - a true, unbiased reflection of reality by means of specific, inherent in a particular type of art. Realism originated in France and England in terms of formation and consolidation of the bourgeois order. Social contradictions of the capitalist system defects identified sharply critical attitude toward him-realist writers. They exposed the avarice, social inequality, selfishness, hypocrisy. In its ideological orientation becomes critical realism. However, the work of the great realists riddled with ideas of humanism and social justice. In France, the 30-40's make their best realistic works of writers who still enjoy the world-renowned - Balzac, Merimee, Stendhal, Maupassant, Flaubert.

Creativity Honore de Balzac (1799-1850) - is the pinnacle, the highest point of Western realism. In the epic "The Human Comedy" all novels related general plan and many characters. Epic includes such works as "unknown masterpiece", "shagreen skin", "Eugenie Grandet", "father mountain", "Lost Illusions", and so on. "Human Comedy" - a grand scale realistic picture that reflects the problems and contradictions of social life in France. Heroes Balzac different psychological certainty, they are depicted as different social types, the actions are determined by their group and personal interests. Brilliant representative of critical realism was also Stendhal (Henri Beyle, 1783-1842). Heroes of his works - Renaissance figures ("The Italian Chronicles"), contemporaries - the novels "Red and Black", "Parma abode" in which he gives its own interpretation omanlyvosti appearance and hypocrisy. In the XIX century. France was an example of realistic poetry works of Jacques Pierre de Beranger (1780-1857), who condemned the war in their songs adventures of Napoleon. He was a true poet-fighter during the restoration. Beranger - also author of satirical poems about love, guilt, life philosophy. The outstanding master of the realistic novel was Prosper Merimee (1803-1870). His short stories concise, elegant, his characters - a strong and vibrant personality ("Carmen," "Columbo," "Falcone").City Hall - the only major author of the novel "Chronicle of the time of Charles IX», devoted to the events Varfolomeyivskoyi night.
After the bourgeois revolution of 1848 in the literature of France is a new type of realism. Now writers create vivid images is powerful, and more close to normal, everyday life. The most representative of a new phase of realism was Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880). Rating position Flaubert on social problems can not be definite: he was always treated with hostility to the bourgeoisie despised masses considered meaningless occupation policy. He urged artists to serve only beauty.Nevertheless, Flaubert gave an excellent critical depiction of reality and set off ripples of social struggle. His best novels - "Madame Bovari", "Education feelings," "Salammbo." Severity of social analysis differs Guy de Maupassant creativity (1850-1893), master of short stories and novels, in which the true nature of man is opposed to the spiritual feelings of loss and covetousness bourgeois owner. The best novels of the writer - "Life," "Dear friend", "Mont-Oriol."
In England, literature realistic direction goes back to the work of Scots Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). But at first he wrote a romantic poem, collected material of Scottish folklore, showed interest in the Middle Ages that it zblyzhuvalo of romantics.World brought him fame as realistic prose. Scott - creator of a new genre of historical novel that combines the realistic and romantic tendencies ("Ivanhoe", "Quentin Dorvard", "Puritans"). In the 30-40th years of XIX century. Realism is the leading areas in the English literature. Top English critical realism - the novels of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), creator of the so-called "educational novel" ("Oliver Twist", "Hard Times", "David Copperfield", "Great Expectations", "Scum of Antiquities").Dickens's works are deeply dramatic, the writer creates a media gallery of social evil, which are the representatives of the bourgeois class. The greatest achievement of Dickens - the image of Mr. Dombey - man, in which all feelings have died, and his smugness, stupidity, selfishness, callousness born of the world belonging to the owners. Adamantine optimistic, bright and very national humor, sober, realistic view of life - all these qualities are inherent in Dickens, made him the greatest writer since Shakespeare popular in England. His contemporary William Tekkerey (1811-1863) in the novel "Fair arrogance" in the historical novel "The History of Henry Esmond," collection of satirical essays "book snobs" cycle parodies "Novels famous inventor" vividly showed the flaws inherent in what was then the bourgeois society.
At the end of XIX century. realistic direction of English literature was presented works, mainly, three writers who gained international fame: Galsworthy (Nobel Prize, 1932), Shaw (Nobel Prize 1925) and Wells. John Galsworthy (1867-1938) in the trilogy "Forsyte Saga" has an epic picture of the human character of bourgeois England late XIX - early XX century. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) - one of the founders of the "Fabian Society", creator of the drum discussions in the center of which was a collision of ideologies hostile, uncompromising resolve social and ethical issues. His plays combine comedy with political, philosophical and polemical aspects, and are intended to influence the public mind the viewer, exactly as on his emotions. Herbert George Wells (1866-1946) - the classic science fiction literature. Problems of scientific and technological progress, he connects with the social and ethical projected development. In the novel "The Time Machine", "invisible man", "War of the Worlds" Wells relied on the latest scientific concepts.
At the end of XIX century world popularity acquires Scandinavian literature. It primarily works by Norwegian writers - Ibsen, Byernsona, Hamsun. In his sharply satirical social-realist dramas of Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) called for the emancipation of the human person from the hypocritical bourgeois morality. His works - one of the highest achievements of Western realist drama. The founder of the Norwegian drama and critical realism, Nobel laureate (1903) Byer Martinius Byernson (1832-1910) its socio-critical views reflected in the drama, as well as in verse. Knut Hamsun Peru (1859-1952) include psychological novels, which depicted individual rebellion against the narrow-minded environment. At the end of the century works of Norwegian writers had a significant impact on public consciousness and literary works of other nations.
Heights of realism in the musical opera of XIX century. reached the creativity of the great Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). His brilliant historical and heroic opera devoted to the national liberation movement in Italy. Personal drama heroes closely connected with political events. They are distinguished by a combination of dynamism and brightness of the mass scenes with depth psychology. In the famous opera "Rigoletto" and "La Traviata" simple musical language expressiveness Verdi managed to deeply understand the inner world of characters. They are characterized by melody, based on Italian folk music, high humanism, aimed at exposing social injustice. The most significant creations of Verdi - opera "Don Carlos" and "Aida" (opera written at the request of the Government of Egypt to the opening of the Suez Canal). By the masterpieces of operatic realism include opera "Othello" and the comic opera "Falstaff," Verdi set to scenes of Shakespeare. In these operas, he abandoned traditional arias and duets, replacing them with monologues, scenes, dialogue, and achieving complete fusion of music with dramatic effect. Democracy, deep humanity, creativity Verdi brought him great popularity. His operas are still constantly present in the repertoire of opera houses around the world.
At the end of XIX century. in Italian opera has developed a new direction - veryzm (Italian - true, true). It belonged Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1857-1919), Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945), Umberto Giordano (1867-1948), Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924).Aesthetics veryzmu - show "life as it is." Opera verystiv differed vitally true stories, true reflection of the inner world of ordinary people. Heroes of operas - peasants, wandering actors, craftsmen and artists. Along with bright melodic vocal melody composers made extensive use of dramatic recitatives, short aria, and so on.
The supreme achievement of musical and opera in France was the work of Georges Bizet (1838-1875) - creator of the opera "Carmen," "Asylum of pearls." "Carmen" is recognized as the top French realist opera, and this day is present in the repertoire of many theaters in Europe.
In painting showed a few very talented artists. True characteristics of the inhabitants of Paris have seen in the works of Edouard Manet (1832-1883), which became the most powerful page in the history of French critical realism. Manet - one of the brilliant colorists world art, which actually predicted impressionism. True to realistic art was the greatest artist England John Constable (1776-1837). He first introduced in the history of art studies. Artist glorified man, his creative work, the attractiveness of nature. Art brilliant Spanish painter and engraver Francisco Goya (1746-1826) was remarkable for bold innovation, passionate emotion, imagination and social aims grotesque. Goya created a huge number of beautiful frescoes, paintings, etchings, lithographs, drawings. He was unequivocally on the side of the people who fought against Napoleon's intervention. He created paintings inspired by realistic that sing Spanish people and its beauty. Creativity Goya imbued with true national spirit, it enthusiastically displayed his time. Goya created a great hravyurni work, choosing the technique of etching. Immortal creatures great Spaniards etchings "Kaprichyos" (80 letters with comments of the artist), which work lasted five years. They have sharp social satire artist against injustice, superstition, ignorance, stupidity.
European art of the nineteenth century. marked and this trend, as naturalism.Representatives of the naturalistic trend in art came from the idea of ​​complete doom of fate, of certainty and determination of the spiritual world of man's social environment, lifestyle, heredity, physiology. In the 80s of XIX century. Naturalism becomes a trend in French literature. The most significant and representative theorist of this movement was Emile Zola (1840-1902). In his main work - dvadtsyatytomniy series of novels ("Ruhon Makkary") based on Zola's own theory (the novel is to be built on a scientific basis, and factors that determine the nature of heroes, are heredity and environment) described the period 1852-1870 he was in life France.Zola sees man as a product of heredity, environment and historical situation. The desire to accurately reproduce reality Zola led to detailed descriptions and use spoken language. It should be noted that the naturalistic trend in art was uneven. With realistic features often prostupaly democratic tendencies inherent decadence of his hopelessness, amorality discouragement.

The concept of "decadence" is often associated with art as the end of XIX century - with symbolism. It was late XIX - early XX century. in Europe there was a new direction in art - symbolism. Symbolist poet used the words of their symbolic rather than concrete meaning. Recognized leaders symbolist poets - Paul Verlaine French (1844-1896) and Artyur Rimbaud (1854-1891). However, the symbolism has been extended in other countries of the continent. Strong influence of French symbolist poet Stephane experienced German George (1868-1933). His concept of himself as the bearer of the German spirit manifested in the book "Tapestry of Life" and then in the collection "The Seventh Ring." Plays symvolistychnoho character wrote the Belgian playwright Maurice Maeterlinck (1862-1949). His pantomime stories about everyday people doomed to loneliness, death, and the famous "Blue Bird" - the possibility of victory over evil and life's natural elements. In general, the representatives of this trend in art focused on the art of using symbols and ideas that are outside the physical perception of man. They tried using the characters to break through the visible reality of the "hidden reality". His art they expressed longing for spiritual freedom, demonstrated the tragic foreboding world of social and historical changes and disasters, showed distrust of centuries-old cultural and spiritual values.
Under the influence of representatives of critical realism painting (Courbet, Domye) in 1874, has another new trend in French art - impressionism. The painting "Impression.Rising Sun "by Claude Monet, exhibited in 1874 in the" Salon disadvantaged ", where artists present their paintings, rejected the official salon, gave the name of a whole direction in art - Impressionism. Impressionists Claude Monet (1840-1926), Auguste Renoir (1841 - 1919), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), Camille Pissaro (1830-1903) united to fight for the update and manage the official art salon in academic artistic creativity, and for this purpose held eight exhibitions. After the eighth in 1886 (first successful) exhibition, this group broke up, exhausted the possibilities of development of a single direction in painting. In general, impressionism had a beneficial effect not only in painting but also to other art forms, particularly in sculpture.Yes, comrade Impressionists was great French sculptor Auguste Rodin (1840-1917).His dramatic, passionate, heroic sublime art glorified beauty and nobility of man ("Kiss," "The Thinker").
The influence of Impressionism is traced in the work of not only writers and painters, but also composers. In music the term "Impressionism" was first applied to works of French composer Claude Debussy (1862 - 1918), whose music embodied fleeting impression, every nuance of human emotion and natural phenomena. Manifesto of musical impressionism recognized prelude to "rest Pislyapoludnevoho Faun." Here there is instability, the instantaneous change in mood, elegance, melodic moodiness.The greatest of his symphonic work - three symphonic sketches "sea." Searches in Impressionism in music continued French composer and pianist Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) - author of the ballet "Daphnis and Chloe", the famous "Bolero" for orchestra. His work is characterized by sensual, exotic and beautiful harmony of orchestral effects.
The architecture in the last third of XIX century. new type of engineering structures is reflected in buildings such as the famous 300-meter long iron tower, built by engineer AG Eiffel (1832-1923) in Paris for the World Exhibition in 1889 engineers of the second half of XIX century. were the main creators of new functional architecture.
The main features of impressionism received further development in postimpressionism. Prominent representatives of this trend were the French artists Cezanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin Dutchman. Starting to work in conjunction with impressionists, they felt in his work their effect. However, each of them was a bright creative individuality and left his own mark in the art. Under the influence of impressionist Paul Cezanne Pissaro (1839-1906) began to paint in the open air.Enchanted possibilities of color and light, he built his painting (portraits, still lifes, landscapes) on the pure colors and color contrasts are resistant composite constructions, the plastic richness, logic structures, the greatness of nature and the organic unity of its forms. Paul Gauguin (1848-1906), who was one of the main representatives of post-impressionism, symbolism and close to the Art Nouveau style, used a generalization of synthetic colors and lines (contrasting colors, contours, light without shadows, abstract figure). He wanted his art to create a poetic world of harmony of man and nature. Was peculiar art of Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890). In his painting there are two periods - the first half of the 80th and the last three years of his life when he was seriously ill. For the first period of painting, executed in dark, gloomy colors, typical emotional, dramatic perception of life, social protest, compassion, people work. Since 1888 in the artist's work is dominated painfully expressive style, color contrasts, choppy rhythm free recurrent stroke. In general, Post-Impressionist Cezanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin had a great influence on the development of artistic culture at the turn of XIX-XX centuries. The new time in the history of European culture finally ended, leaving behind as outstanding achievements and tangible losses. Europe and the world joined in the modern day, which brought with it new highs of the human spirit, never seen before technology, highly effective economic mechanisms. However, the last one hundred years of human history have become very ontological test for the Homo sapiens species, for he created for thousands of years of culture and civilization.

Questions for self-control:
1. What was the nature of the industrial revolution and how it influenced the material culture of humanity?
2. What are the scientific and educational innovations occurred during the century?
3. Why in the culture and ideology in the West spread atheistic tendencies?
4. What are the major artistic styles and trends of this period, you know?
5. What is the essence of such phenomena as the decadence?
6. What European country experienced a bourgeois-democratic revolution in the nineteenth century?

Дата добавления: 2014-01-07