Soldiers face powder, girls powder faces

This device is effective as it helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure. This is due to the sudden change in the structure, which by its very unexpectedness linguistically requires a slight pause before it.

Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and polysyndeton, enumeration, parenthetic sentences. This device is called stylistic convergence.

Syntactical stylistic devices based on the interaction of several syntactical constructions in a certain context

Functions and stylistic effects

- to enhance the separated part of the utterance

As it has been mentioned early on, syntactical expressiveness may be also achieved by means of different combinations of syntactical units in a certain context or by means of transposition of the meaning of these units. In A. Morokhovsky’s interpretation, these are SD of syntax, which fall into three groups:

1/ SD based on interconnections between several syntactical constructions in a certain context (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora);

2/ SD based on the transposition of the meaning of the syntactical construction or the model of the sentence (rhetorical questions);

3/ SD based on the transposition of the meaning of the means of connection between the components of the sentence or sentences (parcellation, subordination instead of coordination).

Sentences in sequence often show no regular alternation of form. Such syntax is said to be stylistically neutral. Often, however, certain regular alternations or reiterations change the neutral flow /development of the text, making it more conspicuous and stylistically relevant.

Parallelism is the repetition of several identical syntactical patterns, which closely follow one another.

E.g. I needed a drink, I needed a lot of life insurance, I needed a vacation, I needed a home in the country. (R. Chandler)

Parallel Construction is a device, which is mainly encoun­tered in the macro-context. The necessary condition in par­allel constructions is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession.

E.g. And it must have been fun – though I can’t remember much about it – to sail home again; and fun, of course, to get home. And pleasant, perhaps, to reappear at school as a man of wide world. And endurable – it had to be – to stay there one more year. (R. Kent)

Such a convergence of EM and parallelism produces a very strong ef­fect, simultaneously foregrounding the logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance.

Types of parallelism:

Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses.

He wouldn’t listen to the music any more. He would break the record. He would give the machine away. He would lift the blind of the window. He would turn on all the lights and open his eyes. He would come to the room only to sleep. He would go down to the pool-room and find a couple of boys. He would stop being alone. (W.Saroyan)

Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sen­tences, as in:

He’d seen people. He’d seen roads. He’d seen fields. He’d seen trees.

Here the sentences fully copy the same syntactical structure.

Parallel constructions are used in different styles of writing with slight­ly different functions. When used in the matter-of-fact styles, it car­ries, in the main, the idea of semantic equality of the parts, as in sci­entific prose, where the logical principle of arranging ideas predomi­nates. In the belles-lettres style this SD carries an emotive function. That is why it is mainly used as a technical means in building up other stylistic devices, thus securing their unity.

In some cases parallelism emphasizes the similarity and equates the significance of the parts.

E. g. He fidgeted, he tossed from side to side in his chair, he bit his fingers, he walked up and down. He fretted, he chafed, he fumed, he raged. (S.Maugham)

In other cases parallel construction emphasizes diversity and con­trast of ideas.

E. g. “Well, what do you want me to say? Do you wish me to tell you it is good? It isn’t. Do you wish me to tell you it is well drawn. It isn’t. Do you wish me to say it has merit? It hasn’t. Do you wish me to show you what is wrong with it? It is all wrong. Do you wish me to tell you what to do with it? Tear up. (S.Maugham)

The device of parallelism al­ways generates rhythm. That’s why it is natural that it is frequently used in poetry.

Functions and stylistic effects

- to create a certain rhythm of narration

- to simultaneously foreground the logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance

- to carry out the idea of semantic similarity and equality of the parts

- emphasizes diversity and con­trast of ideas

- to be a technical means for building up other stylistic devices, thus securing their unity (stylistic convergence)

Chiasmus is a reversed parallelism. Translated from Greek it stands for letter X = Chi, which means “crossing”.

It is the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases.

E.g. I looked at the gun and the gun looked at me. (R.Chandler)

The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word-order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the other - SPO – OPS.

E.g. The public wants a thing, therefore it is supplied with it; or the public is supplied with a thing, therefore it wants it. (W. Thackerey)

The segments that change places enter opposite logical relations, which fact produces various stylistic effects.

E.g. There are wives who are in trouble over their husbands. There are husbands who are in trouble over their wives. (A.Christie)

E.g. Kings are Lords to their subjects, but subjects to their Lords.

Chiasmus is frequently used in titles of books and articles. E.g., R. Jacobson entitles one of his essays “The Poetry of Grammar and the Grammar of Poetry”.

Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to break the monotony of parallel constructions. But whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always bring in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of the second part.

E.g. A poem is a speaking picture, a picture is a mute poem.

Like parallel construction, chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance.

E.g. I’ve finished with them. They’ve finished with me. (R.Chandler)

As can be seen from this short analysis of chiasmus, it has developed, like all stylistic devices, within the framework of the literary form of the language. However, its prototype may be found in the norms of expressions of the spoken language, as in the emphatic: 'He was a brave man, was John."

Certain witticisms are based upon chiasmus:

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