Here the sentence is divided into two independent segments of the same utterance. Using the transformation of deparcellation the unity of the utterance is easily restored

In writing the detached elements are separated from the main clause by a full stop.

The intonation of rhetorical questions, according to the most recent investigations, differs from the intonation of ordinary questions. This is also an additional indirect proof of the double nature of this stylistic device.

All these structural models have various functions. In fact there are various nuances of emotive meaning embodied in question-sentences. Rhetorical questions may also be defined as utterances in the form of questions which pronounce judgements and also express various kinds of modal shades of meaning, as doubt, challenge, scorn, irony and so on.

The rhetorical question re-enforces the essential quality of interrogative sentences and uses it to convey a stronger shade of emotive meaning.

Functions and stylistic effects:

- to help to describe the character’s inner state, his/her meditations and reflections

- to express the emotions of the speaker

- to emphasize the speaker’s key ideas (in oratorical style)

- to draw the attention of listeners (readers) to the focus of the utterance

- to convey various nuances of emotive meaning and modal shades of meaning, as doubt, challenge, scorn, irony

4. SD based on the transposition of types and means of syntactic connection between structures

Yu. Skrebnev and A.Morokhovsky single out a group of SD, in which different changes in the type of connection between clauses or sentences become stylistically relevant.

Parcellation, according to A. Morokhovsky, is the break of the sentence structure into iso­lated parts, separated by a pause.

E.g. It was a grey morning. Cold, still and overcast with the smell of snow. (G. Parker)

E.g. The smoke hung there in the middle of the room, all across the room. Like a curtain. (R. Chandler)

E.g. I saw Moose Malloy there last night. In a room. = I saw Moose Malloy in a room last night.

The detached constituents of parcellation maybe:

- the predicative

E.g. She's awfully independent. And stubborn.

- the object

E.g. Father, there's something I had to tell you. About me.

- the adverbial modifiers (a) of place

E.g. Pull down that blind. Over there. Just above your head.

- the adverbial modifiers (b) of time

E.g. She had to stay. For a week-end.

- the adverbial modifiers (c) of manner

E.g. You can have a chat with him later on. Under my personal direction.

- the adverbial modifiers (d) of purpose

E.g. I'm speaking as a man to man. To your own bene­fit.

- the adverbial modifiers (e) of comparison

E.g. See this one here six times the height of a man. Like a gigantic spray.

- the attribute

E.g. I feel rather like a new-born creature. Rather cold, small, lonely.

- the detached clauses:

· the attributive clause

E.g. I personally thought of the meadows and the forests which are generous like Julia. Which expect no kindness like Julia.

· the adverbial clause of time

E.g. I used to be scared when I was alone in the house. When you were looking for fathers.

· the adverbial clause of place

E.g. I tried a murderer for a model once. He's here. Where I put the biggest box.

· the adverbial clause of condition

E.g. I wrote a poem while I was at the market yesterday. If you are interested, which you obviously are.

Thus the emphatic patterns resulting from this kind of transformation give prominence, intensify the detached items.

E.g. He had poems written all over the baseball mitt. In green ink. (J. Salinger)

Parcellation fulfils the descriptive function, emphasizing and specifying the details of the events described.

Functions and stylistic effects:

- to specify some concepts or facts

- to give a characterization of the personage’s emotional state

- to specify the details in the character’s portrayal

- to emphasize and specify the details of the description of the events

- to convey the spontaneity of oral speech

Subordination and coordination.

Clauses and independent sentences are combined either by way of subordination or coordination. Besides, they may be combined asyndatically, in which case it is hard to say whether we observe asyndetic subordination or asyndetic coordination.

It often happens that the same semantic relations between two neighbouring utterances may be expressed in three different ways:

1. When the clock struck twelve, he came. – subordination

2. The clock struck twelve, and he came. – coordination

3. The clock struck twelve, he came. - asyndetic connection

However, in literary texts these means of connection between clauses or

sentences may be changed / transformed / violated which adds an additional stylistic colouring to the sentence.

E.g. You never can tell in these cases how they are going to turn out and it’s best to be on the safe side. (Dreiser)

Here, the conjunction and evidently signalizes the relation of cause and consequence between the two clauses.

E.g. Open that silly mouth of yours just once, and you’ll find yourself in jail… (Gow and D’Usseau)

This compound sentence is an equivalent of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of condition (If you open…)

This type of sentences carries more emphasis and is more stylistically charged. It may help the author to show different planes of narration.

A similar technique of coordination is at work in this sequence from Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea:

They sat on the terrace and many of the fishermen made fun of the old man and he was not angry.

The direct coordinator and takes precedence over an “adversative” conjunction like but, even when one might expect the latter. The adversative would after all impart some sense of contrast between the last two conjuncts – “many of the fishermen made fun of the old man but he was not angry ” – yet the narratorial perspective is kept almost wilfully noninterpretative here.

In order to show how a range of devices of grammar can work simultaneously in a text, it will be useful to close this unit by focussing on a slightly longer passage. This text is the second paragraph of Ch. Dickens’s novel Bleak House, reproduced here with sentences numbered for convenience:

(1) Fog everywhere. (2) Fog up the river, where it flows among green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls defiled among the tiers of shipping, and the water­side pollutions of a great (and dirty) city. (3) Fog on the Essex Marshes, fog on the Kentish heights. (4) Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier-brigs; fog lying out on the yards, and hovering in the rigging of great ships; fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats. (5) Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of' the wrathful skipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little 'prentice boy on deck. (6) Chance people on the bridges peeping over the parapets into a nether sky of fog, with fog all round them, as if they were up in a balloon, and hanging in the misty clouds.

(Dickens 1986 [1853]: 49)

Rather than attempt to tease out every significant stylistic feature of this famous para­graph we shall restrict ourselves to analysis of just five noteworthy grammatical patterns in this text.

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