Should and ought

Must

May

Can.

The verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tense and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.

"I can't explain it," said Therese. “I can't explain anything I did today." (Heym)

He jumped as high as ever he could. (Galsworthy)

How weakened she was I had not been able to imagine until I saw her at the railway station in Chinkiang. (Buck)

Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment.

1. Physical or mental ability.

Cousin Val can't walk much, you know, but he can ride perfect­ly. He's going to show me the gallops. (Qalsworthy)

I don't know what Captain Loomis was doing there, but you can guess—it was about Thorpe. (Heym)

In this meaning it can be used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

2. Possibility.

(a) due to circumstances:

I could not go to the theatre yesterday because I was busy. "Can I have a cup of tea, Miss?" she asked. But the waitress went on doing her hair. "Oh," she sang, "we're not open yet." (Mansfield)

(Here the speaker does not ask the waitress's permission to have a cup of tea but she merely wants to know whether the place is open and whether she can have a cup of tea.)

You can have the book when I have finished it.

"Can I see him?' Yates asked, not very hopefully. "I'm sorry, no," the voice was hesitant. "We don't want him disturbed." (Heytn)

Can I have my photo taken?

In the last three sentences can comes close to may expressing permission, but it does not so much indicate possibility depending upon the will of the person addressed (which is the essence of per­mission) as possibility depending on circumstances.

"Well, I'll just wait a moment, if I may." "You can't wait in the waiting-room, Miss. I 'aven't done it yet." (Mansfield)

(b) due to the existing laws:

The more she studied, the less sure she became, till idly turning the pages, she came to Scotland. People could be married there without any of this nonsense. (Galsworthy)

Every Soviet citizen can get medical treatment free of charge.

You cannot play football in the street (i. e., you have no right).

Can expressing possibility is used with the Indefinite Infinitive only. Note — Could is often used in polite requests.

Could you give us a consultation to-morrow?

3. Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely connected).

In these meanings can is used with all the forms of the Infini­tive in interrogative and negative sentences, though astonishment is expressed only in interrogative sentences.

No wonder her father had hidden that photograph... But could he hate Jon's mother and yet keep her photograph? (Galsworthy) He удивительно, что ее отец спрятал эту фотографию... Но не­ужели он мог ненавидеть мать Джона и все-таки хранить ее фотографию?

"That is not true!" exclaimed Linton, rising in agitation. "It can­not be; it is incredible, it cannot be." (E. Bronte) «Это неправда,— воскликнул Линтон, вскакивая в волнении. — Не может этого быть, это невероятно, не может этого быть».

Can she be waiting for us? Может ли быть, что она нас ждет?

She cannot be waiting for us. He может быть, чтобы она нас ждала. Неужели она нас ждет?

Can (could) she have said that? Да неужели она это сказала?

There could not have been such relentless unforgiveness. (Gals­worthy) He может быть, чтобы человек мог так жестоко не прощать.

"Oh!" cried Fleur. "You could not have done it.' (Qalsworthy) «О, — вскричала Флер,— не может быть, чтобы вы это сде­лали».

Can she have been waiting for us all the time? Может ли быть, что она нас все это время ждет?

She cannot have been waiting for us all the time. He может быть, что она нас все это время ждет. Confusion came on Jon's spirit. How could she say such things, just as they were going to part? (Galsworthy) Джон был озадачен. Как она может говорить так в тот момент, когда они собираются расстаться?

What could she have seen in that fellow Bosinney to send her mad? (Qalsworthy) Что же она нашла в этом Босини, чтобы так сходить с ума по нем?

In the last two examples we can easily replace could by can without any change of meaning.

Could with the Perfect Infinitive has almost the same meaning as can with the Perfect Infinitive, only the negation is not so categoric as with can.

If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is mostly used. Other forms of the Infinitive are hardly ever used.

Note — The Russian negative-interrogative sentences of the type “Неужели она не читала эту книгу?” are rendered in English by complex sentences: “Can it be that she has not read this book?”

The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.

"May I come along?" asked Karen. (Heym)

Jolyon thought he might not have the chance of saying it after. (Galsworthy)

You are to stay in bed until you are allowed to get up. (Du Maurier)

May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.

1. Permission.

"May I use your phone? (Heym)

At any rate she murmured something to the effect that he might stay if he wished: (Hardy)

As has been mentioned, can also often expresses per­mission but of a different kind: e. g., You may take the book means that the speaker gives the permission:

You, can take the book means that there are no conditions, that prevent the person from taking the book.

May expressing permission is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive. Here we must observe the difference in the expression of permission and prohibition.

Whereas the former is always expressed by may, the latter has other ways of expression besides may not. Very often the negative answer to the question containing a request for permission is don't or must not.

May I read the letter? No, don't, please.

Don't is less strict than may not, it is rather asking somebody not to do something than actually prohibiting something, which is expressed by may not.

Must not means that it is not the person who prohibits the action, but that there are facts, rules, or circumstances prohibit­ing it.

You must not smoke so much.

2. Uncertainty as to the fulfilment of an action, state or occur­rence, supposition implying doubt.

"You may think you're very old," he said, "but you strike me as extremely young." (Galsworthy)

«Может быть, вы думаете, что вы очень старая, — сказал он,— но мне вы кажетесь совсем молодой».

She was and remains a riddle to me. She may and she may not prove to be a riddle to you. (Dreiser)

Она была и остается загадкой для меня. Может быть, она ока­жется загадкой и для вас, а может быть, и нет.

Not which follows may expressing uncertainty is always strongly stressed.

As is seen from the above examples this meaning of may is rendered in Russian by может быть, возможно.

Sometimes when Mr. de Winter is away, and you feel lonely, you might like to come up to these rooms and sit here. (Du Maurier) Иногда, когда мистер де Винтер уедет и вы почувствуете себя одинокой, вам, может быть, захочется прийти посидеть в этих комнатах.

The last example shows that might denoting uncertainty has no temporal meaning, i. e. it does not express uncertainty referring to the past. Practically speaking there is hardly any difference be­tween may any might in this meaning.

Sometimes might expresses greater reserve or uncertainty on the part of the speaker than may.

Might instead of may is often used because of the sequence of tenses.

That was like her — she had no foresight. Still — who knew? — she might be right. (Galsworthy)

Это похоже на нее — она не умела смотреть вперед. Все же — кто знает? — может быть, она и права.

Mrs. Page reflected that though Andrew looked hungry he might not be hard to feed. (Cronin)

Миссис Пейдж подумала, что, хотя у Эндрью голодный вид, его, может быть, и не трудно будет прокормить.

May denoting uncertainty is used with all the forms of the infinitive.

A Forsyte might perhaps still be living in that house, to guard it jealously. (Galsworthy)

It was then that his voice grew tired and his speech impeded. The knowledge that he had entirely lost touch with his audience may have been the cause. (Greene)

Именно тогда в голосе его послышалось утомление и речь его стала прерывистой. Быть может, мысль, что он совершенно потерял контакт с аудиторией, была этому причиной.

When uncertainty is expressed the time of the action is indi­cated by the form of the infinitive and not by the form of the mo­dal verb, as both may and might can refer to the present or to the past in accordance with the form of the infinitive. If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is used.

3. Possibility due to circumstances.

May is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. Can is also possible in this meaning.

In this museum you may see some interesting things. You may see him every morning walking with his dog.

In this meaning it is generally used with the Indefinite In­finitive.

4. Reproach.

Only might is used in this meaning but not may.

You might lend me a razor. I was shaved this morning with a sort of bill-hook. (Galsworthy)

When might is used with the Indefinite Infinitive it is rather a request made in the tone of a reproach, as the above example shows. When it is used with the Perfect Infinitive, it expresses reproach.

I realize now how you spent your days and why you were so forgetful. Tennis lesson, my eye. You might have told me, you know. (Da Maarier)

The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must.

And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)

I felt that I had to have the air. (De la Roche)

Baring, because of the type of work in which he was engaged, had been obliged to forego making friends. (Wilson)

Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or pro­hibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.

1. Obligation, necessity.

(a) due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences):

He must write. He must earn money. (London)

This education is indispensable for whatever career you select, and it must not be slipshod or sketchy. (London)

The absence of necessity is expressed by need not:

Must I go there to-morrow? Yes, you must. No, you needn't.

(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable.

All experience tended to show that man must die. (Galsworthy)

2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive

You must leave the room at once!

You must come to see me every vacation. (Voynich)

You must not speak to a prisoner in a foreign language, ma'am. (Voynich)

3. Probability or supposition.

Supposition bordering on assurance, almost a conviction. In this meaning must is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in affir­mative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть.

If the action refers to the present the Indefinite Infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the Perfect Infinitive is used.

Surely, they don't want me for myself. Then they must want me for something else. (London) Безусловно, я не нужен им сам по себе. Тогда я, должно быть, нужен им для чего-то другого.

Oh, Мае, think how he must be saffering! Poor man! (Webster) О, Мэй, подумай только, как он, должно быть, страдает (как он должен страдать)! Бедняга!

What a comfort you must have been to your blessed mother. (Dickens) Каким утешением ты, должно быть, была для твоей дорогой матушки.

Is she still waiting? She must have been waiting for an hour. Она все ждет? Должно быть, она ждет уже целый час.

In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.

Evidently, she did not know my address.

Supposition referring to the future cannot be expressed by must. The modal word probably or the modal expression to be likely are to be used instead.

She Is not likely to come so late. She will probably come tomorrow.

The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.

I ought to have married; yes, I should ha' married long ago. (Poutsma)

There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is al­ways followed by the infinitive.

When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

In wartime, a man should not part with his rifle. (Heym)

It's murder, and we ought to stop it. (London)

When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out.

Should was originally the past tense of shall, but in the course of its development it has acquired new shades of meaning.

"You should have been here last night when they brought back the DP's to the mines," said Yates. (Heym) She ought to have known that the whole subject was too dan­gerous to discuss at night. (Galsworthy)

I know that I was weak in yielding to my mother's will. I should not have done so. (London)

She had no nerves; he ought never to have married a woman eighteen years younger than himself. (Galsworthy)

Should and ought are sometimes used with the Continuous Infinitive and the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.

You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking with Mary.

You ought to be helping your mother with your salary and not squandering your money.

He should have been trying to break through the isolation the hospital had set around Thorpe, he should have been doing many things other than walking along the Seine quay. (Heym)

Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.

1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or duty. In this meaning ought is more often used than should.

Martin's hand instinctively closed on the piece of gold. In the same instant he knew he oughtn't to accept. (London). Рука Мартина инстинктивно сжала золотую монету. В то же мгновение он понял, что не должен принимать ее.

I promised her if ever the time came when she needed me, to be her friend. Promises of that sort should never be broken. (Meade). Я обещал ей, если когда-либо наступит момент, когда я буду нужен, быть ее другом. Такие обещания никогда не должны нарушаться.

2. Advisability.

In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it al­ways shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.

You should be more careful. (London) Вам следует быть осторожнее.

You ought to have Warmson to sleep in the house. (Galsworthy) Нужно было бы, чтобы Уормсон спал у вас в доме.

3. Something which can be naturally expected.

It's the last of the Madeira I had from Mr. Jolynon... it ought to be in prime condition still. (Galsworthy) Это последняя бутылка мадеры, которую я получил от мистера Джолнона... она должна быть еще в отличном состоянии.

If it's a story by Wodehouse it should be amusing. Если это рассказ Вудхауса, он должен быть забавным.

6. То be + Infinitive.

То be + Infinitive is a modal expression. Some of its meanings are close to those of modal verbs and expressions denoting obliga­tion (must, shall, should, ought,... + Infinitive,).

This modal expression can be used in two tenses — the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).

Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise to-morrow. (Voynich) They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)

To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as navoidable. The ways of render­ing this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.

1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed.

In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of this to anyone. (De la Roche) Ты должна идти прямо в свою комнату. Ты никому не должна ничего говорить об этом.

Schlaghammer frowned. It was not up to him to judge Pettin-ger... but it was in his province to interpret orders. He was to blast the entrances of the mine. (Heym) Шлагхаммер нахмурился. Не ему судить Петтингера, но толко­вать приказы — это его право. Он должен взорвать все входы в шахту.

2. An arrangement or agreement, part of a plan.

In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect Infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.

I'm sorry, Major, we had an agreement — I was to do the ques­tioning here. (Heym) Простите, майор, мы условились, что допрос буду вести я.

We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a quarter to eight, (mutual arrangement) Мы должны были встретиться у входа в театр без четверти восемь.

"Have you seen him?" Martini asked. "No, he was to have met me here the next morning." (Voynich) «Вы его оидели?» — спросил Мартини. «Нет, он должен был встретить меня здесь на следующее утро».

3. Possibility.

In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.

For a long time neither was to be seen about their old haunts. (Dreiser) В течение долгого времени их не видели в местах, где они обычно бывали.

How are they to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by your costume? (Shaw) Как могут они знать, что у вас большие связи, если вы не по­казываете этого своей манерой одеваться?

And he knew that higher intellects than those of the Morse circle were to be found in the world. (London) И он знал, что можно найти людей с более высоким интеллек­том, чем у тех, которые принадлежали к кругу Морзов.

4. Something thought of as unavoidable.

Sally wished Morris could be on the same terms of easy friend­liness with her as he was with everybody else. But evidently, it was not to be. (Prlchard) Салли хотела, чтобы Моррис поддерживал с ней такие же про­стые дружеские отношения, как и со всеми остальными. Но, очевидно, этому не суждено было быть.

I went about brooding over ray lot, wondering almost hourly what was to become of me. (Dreiser) Я все время размышлял о своей судьбе, беспрестанно задавая себе вопрос, что со мной станет.

Note 1 — Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same meaning as the verb to want.

If we are to remain friends you must tell me the truth.

Note 2 — It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions ‘Как мне быть?', 'Что мне делать?' are rendered in English by the medal expression What am I to do?

7. To have + Infinitive

The modal expression to have+Infinitive is used in three tense forms: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite.

I have to get up at six every day.

When water was rushing through the tents and everybody had to sleep in wet blankets, it was treated as a joke. (Prlchard) I shall have to take the pupils into the hills, as usual, and see them settled there. (Voynich)

The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression are formed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Did you have to walk ail the way home? I did not have to walk, I took a tram.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.

I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party for the occasion. (Da Maurter)

I wouldn't look through the letters — disappointment had to be postponed, hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)

To have + Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.

Bing knew that if Willoughby demanded It, he had to give the report. (Heym) Бинг знал, что, если Уиллоуби этого требует, он должен дать отчет.

And if my father was fighting drunk sometimes he wouldn't let us into the house so that we had to stay out all night. (Walsh) И если мой отец в пьяном виде дрался, он иногда не впускал нас в дом, так что нам приходилось ночевать на улице.

Though both the modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive express a shade of obligation or necessity, there is a great difference in their meaning.

Compare:

As I was to be there at 5 sharp (part of an arrangement), I had to take a taxi (necessity arising out of this arrangement). Так как я должен был быть там ровно в пять, мне пришлось взять такси.

In colloquial English and especially in American English have got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.

This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.

O’key, we'll beat'em to it. Dick, we've got to keep awake, we've got to watch things and be ready. (Lindsay)

The negative and interrogative forms are formed without any auxiliary.

Have you got to do all this work yourself? No, I have not got to work so much.

There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.

You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a day's work to earn a day's wages, and apples don't grow on monkey-trees. (Lindsay)

Note — Pay special attention to the difference between I have something to tell you and I have to tell you something. In the latter case the speaker expresses the necessity of telling something to somebody, whereas in the former the verb to have preserves to a certain extent its meaning of possession and the speaker merely states that he has something which he either wants or must communicate to somebody. The difference in word order is caused by the difference in the meaning of the verb to have. In the first case it is not a modal verb, thus have is a simple predicate, something is a direct object and the infinitive is an attribute. In the second sentence haw to tell is a modal expression, so it is a compound verbal modal predicate and something is an object to the infinitive.

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