Безопасность (Safety and security) использования ядерного топлива

НАТО.

Международное право и права человека. Всеобщая декларация прав человека.

International Law of Human Rights – legal provisions, system of laws (domestic and international) designed to govern and promote human rights.

Human rights – refer to the basic rights and freedoms, to which all humans are entitled

(right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law)

The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

- adopted by the GA in 1948 in Paris

- arose directly from the experience of WW2

- 1st international statement to use the term "human rights"

- first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled

- 30 articles elaborated(разработанный) in international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and laws

- freedom and equality in dignity and rights from birth

- no distinction and discrimination

- right of life, liberty, personal security

- prohibition of slave trade and servitude

- prohibition of torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment

- equal recognition before the law

- effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for violation of rights

The International Bill of Human Rights consists of:

1 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

2 the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

3 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (and its 2 Optional Protocols) guarantees the rights of children and prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, color, national origin, or language. Restricts the death penalty. Among the rights for individual:

- the right to legal recourse when their rights have been violated, even if the violator was acting in an official capacity

- the right to life

- the right to liberty and freedom of movement

- the right to equality before the law

- the right to presumption of innocence til proven guilty

- the right to appeal a conviction

- the right to be recognized as a person before the law

- right to privacy and protection of that privacy by law

- freedom of thought, conscience, and religion

- freedom of opinion and expression

- freedom of assembly and association

4 two detailed Covenants adopted by GA in1966

In 1976 the Bill took on the force of international law (after ratification of the Covenants).

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - a military alliance, that was founded in April 1949.

- Its headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium.

- Members: 28: roughly bordering the north Atlantic Ocean - Canada, U.S., Turkey and most members of the European Union.

What Is the History of NATO?:

- Thoughts of such alliance began after the WWII.

- The forerunner of the NATO agreement was the Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and the United Kingdom. It was designed to defend member nations of Western Europe against the large number of troops in pro-communist countries. Those were later known as the Warsaw Pact countries and included the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany.

- Participation of the United States was thought necessary in order to counter the military power of the USSR, and therefore talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately.

- talks resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949.

- It included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. It was ratified in 1949 August 24, the instruments of ratification were deposited with the government of the USA.

- During the Cold War, the primary mission of NATO shifted to prevent nuclear war.

- After the USSR dissolved in the late 1980's, NATO's relationship with Russia shifted again. In 1997, the NATO-Russia Founding Act was signed to build bilateral cooperation. In 2002, the NATO-Russia Council was formed to discuss ongoing security issues. At issue is U.S. missile shields in Europe. Russia argues they are designed to defend against potential Russian attempts to regain its former Warsaw Pact countries. The U.S. counters they are to intercept potential missiles from.

21. Терроризм и ядерное оружие.
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Terrorism - deliberate violence or the threat of violence directed at innocent non-combatants and governments to cause fear systematically to attract media attention for causes which may be political or ideological or religious and which are viewed as coercive (насильств.).

- Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.

- The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause.

- The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose.

- The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.

Types of terrorism:

- State Terrorism (when a State acts as a terroristic group; ex. Nazi Germany)

- Bioterrorism (intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians)

- Cyberterrorism (use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause)

- Ecoterrorism (new term; violence in the interests of environmentalism; sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries in spheres of fur, logging, animal research laboratories, for example)

- Nuclear terrorism (refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.)

Nuclear terrorism is the most dangerous form; it could lead to unpredictable consequences. A number of institutions were created to protect the world from it:

- IAEA (Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibits its use for military purposes. Carries out control over the nuclear objects all around the world with help of special commissions)

- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (limits the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons; opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China)

Nuclear weapons:

- Uranium based (enrichment level 80-90% (for nuclear plants 2-4.5%), 45-50 kg minimum)

- Plutonium based (ex. Nagasaki bomb: 8kg Pu-239)

Safety and security of the use of nuclear fuel

Safety culture – attitude among staff towards safety

Safeguards – international accounting and verification system designed to ensure that fissile material is only used for peaceful purposes.

ALARA – reduce doses as low as reasonably possible

ALARP – reduce accidents to as low as reasonably practicable

Security – freedom from illegal acts such as terrorism

Safety – freedom from radiological and non-radiological accidents.

Weakness of the NPT:

- the state can decide that it’s not in his interest to inform you and it may not do so then you’ll never know what’s happening.

- you have to develop your own ability to observe non-intrusively its territory.(satellites with sensors)

The IAEA is involved by helping nations to develop nuclear energy for peaceful use. It also has responsibility under the NPT for ensuring that nuclear material is not diverted into weapons. To that end it carries out regular inspections of civil nuclear facilities. The NPT is complemented by international controls on the export of technology which could be used for developing nuclear weapons.

The Additional Protocol singed in 1997 which allows inspectors of AIEA more power to detect undeclared activities. Inspectors can visit any suspect location in a country without giving more than two hours notice. The Additional protocol is a major step forward in preventing the proliferation.

+The UN Environment Programme also deals with the safeguards of nuclear materials.

Chernobyl.

The international scale of accidents/incidents.

Safety nuclear material is when transported:

Canister – small container for vitrified HLW

Cask – packaging for carrying or storing highly radioactive material.

Packaging – hardware into which radioactive contents is inserted

Package – packaging plus its contents

Overpack – an extra covering around the packaging

Дата добавления: 2015-01-03