Further reading 3 страница. 8.1.2. Gaps as a type of non-equivalent words Gap is one of the types of non-equivalent words

8.1.2. Gaps as a type of non-equivalent words
Gap is one of the types of non-equivalent words. The difference in the gaps from the realities is that first, the realities of close otmoetsa with referent and denote concepts - the idea of the subject, available in one country and the other missing. Gaps Express the notion of an object, existing in the two countries, but they mean it in the process of expressing semantic shades concepts; secondly, the realities associated with the value expressed through concepts and gaps is meaning well. They indicate shades of meaning, not in the views of the residents of one country; and third, the realities are not associated with associations, inadequate in relation to the subject, and gaps are native speakers of a language do not coincide Association, which is associated with values and beliefs of the native speakers of a language. Therefore, C. S. Vinogradov mention associative gaps still emphasized that such realities are "entrenched" in the words of the most common. They find their expression persisted in the components of the meanings of the words, nuances of words, emotionally-expressive overtones in the internal form of words, etc. by detecting information of the different concepts, but similar words in the two languages [Vinogradov, 2006].
The emergence of associative gaps associated with existence in the semantic structure of the word special national-specific components. Thereto Century, the SAC considers these seven, which either differ from the corresponding SEM in lexical correspondences language comparison on the contents or status, or differ in the absence of a comparison of SEM in the same language if they are in another (other) [GAK, 1977, 162].
National-specific seven included in the structure of lexical meaning of the word. Judging from the meaning of the word, as the relations of words to the denotatum, mediated through the signified (the referent), and the reality of the word relates to denote items not directly, but through the signified (the referent), which can be defined as the subject of thought, reflecting the subject or the phenomenon of objective reality and forms the conceptual content, which relates this language unit. Words realities, in addition to the direct denotation of values, may have other connotative values.
The lexical meaning of the word includes two main macro: denotation and connotat. The national specificity of the word is manifested both at the level of denotation, and at the level of connotate. In the denotation component words are specified distinctive features of objects and phenomena of objective reality. At the level of denotation meaning of national specificity is evident in my choice of distinctive features in the perception of the phenomena of reality, in another group in this sense.
Cross-language equivalents are differences in connotative component of lexical meaning. Thought Century. N. Telia, connotative part of the meaning of the word "subject of objectivation is not the world, and the attitude that displays some form of emotive reactions of the subject to denote" [Telia, 1986, 134].

Connotative values differ because in them the elements connotations are estimates, associative imagery, emotive and functional-stylistic components.
It is the discrepancy between connotative components of the lexical meanings of words in different languages leads to a different kind of subjective semantic gaps. And it is quite natural, as subjectively meaningful gaps are updated in the context mapping words from different languages is not only an objectively real meaning, but also connotative, a component which can be subjective semantic values, i.e. values that expresses a subjective attitude speaking to the subject of thoughts, his reactions, his associates. Subjective meanings Express background knowledge contained in the lexical background of the word. Lexical background of the word, which presents background knowledge, acts as a special kind of word meaning. The semantics of words in linguistics conceived as the unity of lexical concepts, acting as the means of nomination: due to the minimal number of semantic shares that make up the scope, people recognize, classify objects, recognize and call them) and lexical background, which is conceived as the totality of all attributed to the word-concept of information available in the mass ordinary consciousness of native speakers. Lexical background has an individual status as language, objective meaning of words in context, acquire additional personal meanings: subjective values (units), speech by the speaker's intention, his assessment of the situation, knowledge of the speaker, his assessment of the situation, knowledge of the rules of communication skills. Therefore, A. N. Leontief argued that conceptually-mediated, subject correlation and associative structure relationships with other words and define its objective public meaning as the first aspect is "reasonable meaning." The second aspect is subjective personal meaning, which, firstly, is that the word "means" for the native speaker, because, according to A. N. Leontief, personal meaning expresses it (subject) relationship to perceived objective phenomena" [Leont'ev, 1972, 227]. This attitude in speech activity is expressed, in particular, in the subjective emotional evaluation of words. In other words, subjective personal meaning is a kind of prism of individual refractive objective public meaning of phenomena as collective lessons learned by native speakers. Coupled objective public meaning of the verbal units and their subjective personal assessment as the first aspect of subjective personal meaning to form meaning (language) words. This subjective personal meaning acquired in the situation in the expression of the subjective relationship of the individual is closely linked with the basic meaning of the word. They inter-necessary and complement each other. The value of this objective, the permanent component of a lexical unit, and the meaning - changing, emerging in speech component words. E. D. Suleimenov emphasizes the interconnectedness of values and meaning, saying that the value and meaning "cannot be known as Autonomous entities: they are inseparable from each other. No sense can not be delivered without significant expressions" [Suleimenov, 1989, 9].

G. M. Vereshchagin and C. G. Kostomarov indicate that in each word are in special semantic shares, part of which refers to the conceptual semantic shares, and part - to neponyatiynom. In their opinion, the conceptual semantic shares are those that "provide a classification of the subject, are part of the lexical concepts" [Vereshchagin, Kostomarov, 1973, 25].
Other semantic stakes not included in the conceptual belong to the lexical background. Lexical background are those, taken together, neponyatiynom DM are samemu, but do not participate in mediated by language classification of human activity, and Express extra-linguistic content. Lexical background, i.e. individual meaning, has an individual status, he comes into the mind of this, it is a specific person, as a retainer knowledge. However, in the basis of individual lexical background of lay knowledge common to all native speakers of the language and culture. Lexical background the phenomenon of cultural-linguistic. It lies on the intersection of language and culture, so without knowledge of the lexical background impossible disclosure of meaning, connotations, allusions, implications, and sometimes impossible, and understanding the word in its objective value. Therefore, the gaps should be considered not only words, no conceptual correspondences in comparable languages (due to the absence of the objects themselves), but also words background vocabulary, expressing background knowledge - of words which differ in their backgrounds due to the mismatch of individual semantic components that are not in concepts and backgrounds called "minor signs". "But the thing is, what these semantic fraction expressing the lexical background, play a crucial role in attributing the words to this culture, so it is in this "particular" is the national identity of the designated data word phenomena" [Tomakin, 1988, 14].
One word for the concept in the most General form (generic and therefore quite specific), which is owned by a foreigner, native language contrasts dozens of names of specific items related to that common as species to genus with some of these items (and accordingly, the corresponding words) belong to the national peculiarities of the culture and form groups realities do not have matches in the other cultures. The names of these objects do not have equivalents in the translation into other languages.
Gaps stand out not only because of the full discrepancy indicated by their subjects in the matched cultures and their individual characteristics.
Therefore, in linguistics realities should be considered as words denoting objects related to the history, culture, economy and lifestyle of the country of studied language, which differ completely or partially separate semantic shares their lexical concepts) from the lexical concepts of words matching language. Words, different semantic shares beyond concepts, refer to the background vocabulary [Tomakin, 1988, 15].
In our opinion, to the realities should include the words, completely different from the lexical concepts of words matching language. And words, different semantic shares their lexical concepts are gaps.
In this case, there are semantic and conceptual gaps.
Y. A. Sorokin, I. Y. Marcovina interpret gaps in the following way: "the lacuna is some text in which there is something strange, strange, wrong (something that can be evaluated on the scale of "unclear/clear", "unusual/usual", "unfamiliar/familiar", "wrong/right" [Sorokin, Marcovina, 1988, 77]

The mapping between the source language and the target language shows that in comparison, they found two types of gaps: 1) meaning "well" and 2) the actual gaps.
Semantic wells Y. A. Sorokin, and I. Y. Marcovina give the following definition: "Meaning well is some piece of text, where the sum (field) denotata is vague due to: 1) nepredstavleniem those or other elements of the denotation of the structure of some phenomenon in the analyzed text; 2) inadequacy of images of the denotata of the receiving device (formation samples projections based on existing text elements of the denotation of the structure of some phenomenon); 3) quasicondensate designata, hindering the identification of the denotata as belonging to different conceptual-semantic fields" [Sorokin, Marcovina, 76].
In the translation the term "meaning well" to understand the actual denotation of the realities of expressing national-specific concepts that are missing in other cultures. It is their conceptual nepredstavleniem in other cultures leads to the appearance of gaps, the denotation of "yum". The actual "gaps" should be marked connotation realities that have connotative meanings in the semantic structure of the word. These gaps indicate the state of some conceivable world reducyrovana (incomplete). Such incomplete gaps are called partial. They include that in the original language have full set of these things, but in the translation of these seven are expressed incompletely. A number of these things, some components segment exceeds the number of SEM in the translation of this fragment, for example, in the translation of text from the works of E. Hemingway: "He always thought of the sea as la mar which is what people call her in Spanish when they love her" (E. Hemingway), "he always thought of the name of the sea as la mar which is what his name is in Spanish people who love him" (E. Hemingway. The old man and the sea, S. 347). la mar is a partial gap, as in the process of translation in the text is lost relationship she - sea; she - la mar (she - sea), which indicates the author. In Russian language "sea" is translated as the word is neuter in English has no gender category, so in this language the gender assigned arbitrarily or other inanimate objects.
When comparing languages are words that match their substantive values, but not the same connotations. Word connotation gaps relate to the background lexicon. Connotations are expressed not in non-equivalent vocabulary, and words denoting the same objects in the comparable cultures, but their differences are rooted in the national identity of the associations produced by the word. The connotation of the realities of their persisted find expression in the components of the meanings of the words, in shades of meanings of words in a verbal domestic form, etc. by detecting information mismatch conceptually similar words in the two languages. Differences in connotative meanings of words are explained by cultural-ethnographic identities of the peoples of different countries and denominated in the background knowledge. Background knowledge is mutual knowledge of the realities of the speaker and hearer, which is the basis of linguistic communication. This background information, including skills as a generalized image of the actions, behaviours, expectacy, speech postulates words, embodying social experience of the people - all this relates to socio-cultural information that is specific to a particular nationality. They mastered the members of this ethnic society and reflected in its language. To background knowledge E. M. Vereshchagin relates also knowledge of the social history of communicant. They are also included in the background knowledge: "the participants in the act of communication must be to a certain extent the General social history. Under the social history of man are understood to be those characteristics that he encountered within a particular social group or broader language community. These include human behavior, the system's worldview, ethnicity estimates, aesthetic tastes" [Vereshchagin, 1969]. Social history of communicant is the background knowledge that have been accumulated in each of the communicants to the act of communication. Each of the participants of the speech act must have a certain experience as linguistic (language)and non-linguistic (knowledge about the world). For communication is necessary, first, a common language; secondly, the participants in the act of communication should have a certain commonality of social history, and, thirdly, they must have a voice situation, i.e., the specific conditions of a given act of communication. The language depends on the possibility of a communicative act from the General social history depends on the content of the messages, from the speech situation - their linguistic form [Vereshchagin, 1969]. Community social history finds its expression in the background knowledge. Background knowledge in a broad interpretation is almost all the knowledge that should be possessed by the communicants.

D. Tomakin in the field of dissemination divides them into the following subgroups: 1) universal knowledge; 2) regional information; 3) information available only to members of certain ethnic and linguistic community (nation); 4) information available only to members locally (residents of the area) or socially closed group - in linguistic terms, this corresponds to territorial and social dialects (for example, the names of the local geographic features and related associations); 5) information in the possession of only the members of this microcollection: such as family, educational and industrial group, etc., (e.g., nicknames, known only to a small circle of people, associations, connected with the history of this microcollection, incidents, not beyond) [Tomakin, 1980, 84].
Connotative gaps reflect the diversity of background knowledge in different cultures. Such gaps Express six types of connotations or meanings: 1) fine (presentation); 2) emotional; 3) cultural-civilizational: 4) thematic (semantic field); 5) informative (level of knowledge); 6) worldview [Komlev, 1992].
Among these kinds of connotations for holding interest connotations associated with zabavnymi (modal, evaluation and emotionally expressive elements of the lexical meanings of the word).
Linguistic manifestation connotations are portable meaning of words (crow, hat, stepson and others) Have the same words in different languages may have different connotations, such as "rat" - eng. Rat traitor, other rat "stingy man". Ratte "people who work with passion", eng. Rat "void primigenia service man" [Komlev, 1992].
H. K. Temirgazina, speaking about the conceptual gaps, explains the appearance of gaps for the following reasons: "gaps (emptiness, space, skip)- - arises in a particular language words and concepts available in another language. Gaps appear not because there is no phenomenon or concept, and because of this culture as a matter irrelevant to the selection of one or another aspect, one or the other side of reality" [Temirgazina, 2002].
H. K. Temirgazina right in the sense that the appearance of gaps is not necessarily due to lack of words or concepts in the other culture, as the ethnic groups living in different ecological and socio-historical, cultural, geographical landscape conditions, perceive the world in its own manner, under the point of view of perception. Therefore, they are one and the same world conceptualiser in different ways, inadequate concepts. That is why only you can say that gap is the lack of appropriate concepts in the culture of this nation.
The concept is an idea that represents a synthesis of the characteristics of the subject and highlight objects of various classes according to their characteristics, the Association based on common characteristics of denotata belonging to the same class. The notion of an object is based on selection of features that distinguish one object from another, generalization of these signs and draw some General conclusions about the characteristic properties of the subject. Based on this, the subject of the definition. Representatives of different linguistic and cultural communities differently divides the objective world, allocating those objects, or other signs that seem significant for a representative of this culture. On the basis of the marked characteristics of this ethnic group is the concept about the subject. But these same characteristics may seem insignificant, not typical of other media culture, perceiving this objective world through the prism of their culture. Reality is perceived differently in different languages, as it is conceptualized by representatives of different linguistic and cultural communities through the prism of their cultures. Certain differences between the conceptual division of the world in different cultures is the result of inadequate awareness of different linguistic and cultural communities. Different perception of the world through ethnic-linguistic picture of the world contributes to the fact that the bearers of different cultures may choose as the basis of communication different sides of the same phenomenon. The objective world is the same for different ethnic groups, however, structuration in the conceptualization different. Together with the existence of semantic universals - the universality of the categories and known community in the designation of the same fragments of the real world.
Moreover, the absence in some cultures fractional fragments of the General concepts is evidence that General concepts, universal for both languages, can be expressed as the integer or as something dismembering this General concept. In this case, the concept is expressed in a few words or phrases that link concepts with the word may be direct, or indirect, expressed in a sustainable combination or using a relative definition. Therefore, for the selection of verbal gaps should consider a few cases, the ratio concepts and words: 1) in all cultures and languages of the world are missing as a concept and its verbal expression, for example, in English there is no word "mother-in-law"; 2) in any culture (cultures) defined the concept finds expression in the language, not directly, but indirectly, through other concepts, verbal in the form of the same type combine derivatives, for example, mother-in-law (Rus) - mother - in-law (mother-in-law - mother-in-law mother - not by blood, but by marriage). In this case, the leading concept of "mother" (mother, wife), there is a hidden, implicit. In these cases, "leading concept there is a latent, only in this series, for example, FR. pommier (Apple), prunier (plum tree), poirie (pear tree); 3) originating in the mind, the concept for some time can to exist in the form of either a) cumbersome phrases, or b) detailed description, which is not deployed in order to more fully define something known, and in the absence of a suitable name for the concept, for example, sometimes speaking in any situation, look for the most adequate word for incurred but not yet decorated language concepts.
The classification analysis of gaps shows that different scientists inadequately describe them, highlighting their different types.
A. A. Lacquer, considering the cultural gaps that arise in the process of intercultural communication, distinguishes four types of gaps: 1) subject gaps (gaps, reflecting the national-cultural peculiarities of communicants belonging to different linguistic and cultural communities). These gaps result from the mismatch of the national psychological types of the communication parties. The existence of the "character" of the gaps caused by specific features of the national character of the local media of different cultures; 2) cultural and emotional gaps. Their appearance is caused by the peculiarities of manifestation of national temperament; 3) "carnival" gaps indicate national-specific modus of being funny in different cultures" [Lacquer, 211-212].
B. So Kulibaeva are the following types of gaps: 1) the subject; 2) cultural background; 3) associative or symbolic gaps; 4) ethnoconnotation gaps; 5) non-verbal gaps; 6) behavioral gaps [kulbaevo, 2010, 17].
In our work, gaps are treated as semantic and functional wells arising from the inadequacy of speech, kinesiska and emotive state behavior of speakers of different languages belonging to different linguistic and cultural communities in the process of intercultural communication, when the inadequacy of the language picture of the world in their minds leads to unequal structuring of the world in languages and different conceptualization.
We are distinguished on the basis of the totality of verbal and non-verbal state behavior of speakers of different languages belonging to different linguistic and cultural communities, the following gaps: 1) intercultural gaps are snippets of statements, strange, incomprehensible to communicate considering a different culture at the initial stage of culture shock through his own and ethnocentrism. These gaps can be attributed to the mismatch of the customs, rites, rituals that each culture is interpreted and implemented differently, for example, the tradition of celebrating New year in Kazakhstan, Russia, Greece different; 2) ethnographic gaps - gaps that occur when the communicants are not familiar with the words-realities, giving an overview of the national color of the ethnic group, calling the concept of life, toponyms, clothing, etc.: 3) behavioral gaps. Principles of conduct in different people inadequate, so the positions of different groups according to the principles of behavior are not always the same, that is a sign of a different perception of the world, the existence of different pictures of the world, different stereotypes speech behavior enshrined in conventional form in the consciousness of the ethnic groups; the inadequacy of the speech behavior of representatives of different linguistic and cultural communities is the result of locality and identity of cultures, and behavior - an integral component of culture; 4) the subject-emotive gaps arising from the peculiarities of manifestation of national temperament carriers of different cultures; 5) the subject-mentality gaps that occur because of the different worldviews, attitudes, value orientations of ethnic groups, the features of their national character; (6) conceptual gaps that arise due to the absence of the concepts in a different language or different transmission language in another language (based on the implementation of the concepts of type combine-combining; 7) idiomatic gaps - gaps that appear because of the different graphic representation of the objective world in different Nations and his second nomination, conceptualization; 8) stylistic gaps - gaps that occur because of the different set of words to different functional styles in languages related to enablescrolling; 9) language gaps semantic wells; gaps that occur because of the different non-verbal States partners in the process of intercultural communicative act, different interpretations will cast, inadequate motor skills non-verbal behaviour among representatives of different gaps.

The presence of non-verbal subcultures - aggregates only kinesiska and emotional States of individuals as representatives of some psychic types allows you to select kinesiska gaps. Kinesiska gaps are gaps that occur due to the inadequacy of paralinguistic-ical States, paralinguistic behaviors of different cultures. Kinesiska gaps - the national-specific nonverbal behavior of interactants intercultural communication, representatives of different ethnic groups. Such communicants in terms of intercultural communication, entering into contact with members of another linguistic-cultural community and even speaking in the language of the latter act according to its behaviour, use "its" kinesiska, proxemics system. And in this case we can speak about intercultural nonverbal gaps - paralinguistic elements, ambiguously interpreted in different cultures.
11) Connotative gaps that arise due to mismatches in different languages subjective evaluation the subjective attitude of the subjects towards the object of thought in different cultures, which is associated with the realization of their values and negative or positive value orientations; 12) Associative gaps.

7.1.3. Classification realities in perevodovedenie and ways of their translation
In perevodovedenie realities should be classified on the basis of the criterion of privodimosti-non-transferability. This raises the question: are there any equivalents of these words in the language of the translation, whether the conceptual relatedness of words, denoted by the realities or arise denotation "the pit" - gaps.
In our opinion, the reality can be viewed as lexical gaps, as realities as non-equivalent words have no equivalents in the other language. If such gaps should speak not only about the lack of equivalent words in another language, but also about the lack of an equivalent in the form of phrases that word. The appearance of such gaps is due to the fact that each national language-specific, therefore, according to A. Verbickas, "in language reflects not only the unique environmental conditions and culture, but also the originality of the national character of its speakers. Not surprising that in the eskimo language has many names for snow, in the Arab - camel, and Chinese rice. The language reflects the conditions of existence of his people and contains the names and realities, specific people" [Verbitskaya, 1996, 21].
However, it is necessary in this case to use the common term "reality".
In perevodovedenie realities reflect in their structure due to the natural and geographical environment in which people live - media language, culture and peculiarities of the political structure of society, the life, manners, customs, traditions, folk beliefs, folklore, cultural-historical and cultural associations related to different realities. Denotation realities represent objects and phenomena that are characteristic of the culture, but does not have a corresponding mapped culture (corresponding words attributed to non-equivalent vocabulary). Non-equivalent words have no semantic mappings in the system contents inherent in another language. Their existence is explained by the divergence of cultures, cf.: soup, pickle, hash, soup, beer, pancakes, dress, boots, mittens, fathom, yard, mile, spool, pound, pounds, peddler, my Lord, the mayor, the Assembly, petition, estate, servant, slave, bondage, good fellow, fair maiden, Sivka-burka, the Firebird, honey, beat the forehead, raise the alarm, Kolomenskaya versta and other

Those realities include proper names and onomastic lexicon.
Following the formation of the translated language gaps that occur when "semantic wells", "conceptual wells", inadequacy associative views of the speakers, the connotation of zaznaczenie words in different languages. So, for the connotation of the gaps are cases when the notion enclosed in the structure of the same words in different languages, but additional connotative meanings of the word are not the same and cause in the minds of the media, certain cultural and historical associations, for example, rooster, Fox, eagle, spider, pig, wolf, br, EU, bltr, at and other such words evoke different associations, for example, if in Russian and Kazakh languages the word "cock" has the connotation is "bully", in France "cock" is a symbol, the official emblem of France - a symbol of courage and fighting qualities. Connotative meaning in Proverbs "C'est le cog du village" ("It is a rustic rooster" - the first guy in the village"), "C'est un bean cog" ("This is a beautiful rooster" - the philanderer), "Il se bat comme un petit cog" ("He fights like a Cockerel - the bully) positive, whereas in other cultures subjective attitude fluctuates between negative and positive.
Classification realities in carrying out should be made primarily on the basis of the differentiation of reality and gaps. The reality is basicality words that are not found in this language, but there are other, as denote specific concepts of the culture of the people.
It is impossible to find the equivalents in the other language, because language is not a concept found in the source segment. The lacuna is the word that have the same subject-objective value with the word of the original, but includes connotative values, expressing subjective attitudes, subjective-evaluative sense. It is expressive, emotional components values. Moreover, the emergence of gaps caused by different conceptual, semantic connotations of the word in different languages. The denotation of the pit arise from inadequacy and associative views of different peoples associated with the same object, phenomenon.
The main methods of transmission of the realities on the language of the translation by the authors treated differently. So, C. S. Vinogradov identifies the following ways of translated words realities: 1) transcription (transliteration); 2) Hypo-hyperemesis translation; 3) assimilation; 4) izafa translation; 5) calques [Vinogradov, 2006, 119-120].
S. I. Vlahov and S. P. Florin provide multiple means of conveying reality in translation: 1) transcription (transliteration); 2) the actual translation. It includes: a) neologisms (Calca, Polyanka, development, semantic neologism); b) replacement of realities; in) approximate translation (genus-species replacement, functional equivalent, description, explanation, interpretation); d) contextual translation.
Occasional receptions offered by S. I. Vlachova and S. P. Florini appear to be too vague, it is difficult to be used in the translation process. The authors in the selection of the techniques did not produce a careful selection of the realities because, firstly, one group included and occasional borrowing (subject to transcription and transliteration, translation) and mastered, assimilated in language-receptor words which have become elements of the lexical system of the host language; secondly, it differentially to learn words realities in the original and in translation. The emergence of new words realities in translation will not always be successful and partially compensates for the national reality; third, the term "rough translation" can be recognized as a failure.
In the process of transferring words realities you should use the basic techniques, proven by many interpreters: 1) transcription (transliteration); 2) assimilation; 3) compensation gaps; 4) descriptive translation; 5) calques; 6) genus-species replacement; 7) functional analogue; 8) translation review. Consider some of them.

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