GLOSSARY 1 страница

You will hear speakers with international accents of English from five countries (Poland, India, Japan, China, Spain) talking about their families. Listen and write the name of the country you think they are from.

Speaker 1 is from ____________________

Speaker 2 is from ____________________

Speaker 3 is from ____________________

Speaker 4 is from ____________________

Speaker 5 is from ____________________

9. You will hear the same text read three times: first by a speaker
of BBC English, second by a speaker of Jamaican English, and third by
a Polish speaker of English. Listen and note differences in pronunciation
you observe.

The speaker of Jamaican English

… I already had cutlery and cups and saucers, and my brother gave me some new plates and bowls. I had to get quite a lot of furniture, too. I didn’t need a new bed, but I bought a nice old wooden table and some chairs for the sitting room…

Notes:

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The Polish speaker of English

… I had to do quite a lot of decorating. I’ve wallpapered the bedroom and painted the bathroom so far, but there’s still quite a lot to do. But I’m in no hurry and I’m really enjoying it. It’s great having my own place at last.

Notes:

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Accent – is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in such words is usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying them.

Accommodation – adaptation of vowels to different adjacent sounds, e.g. in /tu:/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /u:/ and /u:/ is a little bit advanced under the influence of /t/.

Acoustic phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.

Adjacent sounds – sounds that follow each other.

Affricates – the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs: in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a narrowing.

Allophones – variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions.

Allophonic transcription – this type of transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per allophone". This transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually placed between square brackets [ ].

Alternation of sounds — changes of the sounds in different derivatives from the same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different allomorphs of the same morpheme.

Alveolar consonants – articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes
a complete obstruction with the alveoles.

Alveoles, or Alveoli — depressions in the upper jaw, which socket the upper teeth.

Apex — the tip of the tongue.

Apical – articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth
or the alveolar ridge.

Articulate – to pronounce audibly and distinctly.

Articulation – coordinated movements of speech organs in the process
of speech.

Articulatory phonetics — the description and classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech apparatus.

Aspiration – a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in initial position.

Assimilation – the process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.

Attitudinal function – this function is performed by intonation, when
the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying, by intonation alone,
e.g.: low fall — lack of interest: ˎHave you? high fall — surprise: ˋIs she?

Back vowels – vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between
the hard and the soft parts of the palate.

Back advanced vowels – vowels, which are formed when the tongue is
in the back part of the mouth cavity but is slightly advanced and the central part
of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate.

Back secondary focus — it is formed by raising the back part of the tongue towards the soft palate (velarisation); e.g. /w/ and "dark" [1] are pronounced with the back secondary foci.

Bicentral — formed with two places of articulation.

Bicentral consonants — consonants articulated with two centres of complete or incomplete obstruction.

Backlingual consonants (velar) – sounds produced with the back part
of the tongue raised towards the soft palate.

Bilabial – articulated by the upper and the lower lip.

Body of the tongue — the whole of it.

Breath — the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the bronchi and the wind-pipe, or blowing it into the lungs.

Bronchi — two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs.

Bulk (body) – the whole.

Cacuminal – articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue raised against the back slope of the teeth ridge.

Cardinals — an international standard set of artificial vowel sounds which, according to D. Jones, can be produced with the bulk of the tongue at the four cardinal points in the front part of the mouth cavity and at the four cardinal points in the back part of the mouth cavity.

Central vowels – vowels formed when the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate.

Centring diphthongs – diphthongs which glide to central /ə/.

Checked vowels — short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by consonants.

Classification — the method which studies common properties of the investigated phenomena and which is used to arrange them systematically.

Classify — to arrange the common properties of (phonetic) phenomena according to their typical characteristics.

Clear sound — the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work.

Close transition — articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the first stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first sound.

Coalescent — bilateral assimilation of two sounds when in the result they give a new sound.

Combinatory allophones — variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds together.

Communicative centre — a word or a group of words which conveys
the most important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence.

Communicative types — the types of sentences which are differentiated according to the type of intonation. V. A. Vassilyev gives the following communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric statements. 2. Disjunctive questions. 3. Commands. 4. Exclamations. 5. Special questions. 6. Alternative questions. 7. General questions and 8. Requests.

Comparative phonetics - branch of phonetics which studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages.

Complementary distribution — arrangement of allophones of one and the same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.

Complete assimilation — assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other.

Consonant – a sound of noise, which is formed by a complete or incomplete obstruction.

Constitutive function of speech sounds — the function to constitute
the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.

Constrictive fricative consonants – consonant sounds in the articulation
of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.

Constrictive sonorants (sonants) – consonant sounds made with
an incomplete obstruction, but the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it’s wide enough for tone prevailing over noise.

Contact – a closure made by the organs of speech.

Dark sound — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back secondary focus).

Dental consonants – consonants produced with the tip and the blade
of the tongue placed against the upper front teeth. (Sounds [t, d, n] before [θ – ð]).

Descending scale — gradual lowering of the voice pitch.

Descriptive phonetics — studies the contemporary phonetic system
of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all
the phonetic units of this language.

Devoice — to pronounce with the vocal cords switched out. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian language).

Diachronic approach — analysis of the phenomena which refer to different periods of development.

Dialectology — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.

Diaphone – allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by different people.

Diaphragm — that part of the power mechanism which separates the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity.

Diction — a way of speaking. The selection and control of words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, etc.).

Digraph – combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme.

Diphthong – a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct; the glide which shows the direction of the quality change is very weak.

Diphthongization – slight shifting of the organs of speech position within
the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation.

Diphthongoids – vowels in the pronunciation of which the articulation
is slightly changing but the difference between the starting point and the end
is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs.

Dissimilation – substitution of one sound for another, similar in tamber but different articulatorily: пролубь, лыцарь instead of прорубь, рыцарь.

Distinctive function of speech sounds – it is manifested most conspicuously in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means of distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.

Distributional analysis – this method helps to establish the distribution
of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.

Disyllabic – consisting of two syllables.

Dorsal consonants – pronounced with the blade of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

Dorsum of the tongue – the middle and back parts of the tongue.

Double stress – two stresses within one and the same word.

Drawl – to pronounce slowly.

Duration – length.

Dynamic accent – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.

Edges of the tongue – the rims of the tongue.

Elision – dropping off of a sound in rapid or careless speech.

Emphasis – combination of the expressive means of the language to single out emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.

Emphatic – that which refers to emphasis.

Enclitic – unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or syllable.

Exhalation – breathing the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

Exhale – to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

Experimental phonetics – the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and with the help of different apparatus and devices.

Expiration – breathing the air out.

Explosion (plosion) – noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a complete obstruction.

Fall – lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.

Fixed word accent – this type of accent is characterized by the fixed position, of stress.

Flapped consonants – articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge. For example: [r] in sorry, very.

Flat narrowing – passage for the flow of air, which is more or less flat.
The sounds If, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.

Flow of air – the stream of air.

Focus (pi. foci) – the place in the mouth cavity, in which the obstruction (complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation of a consonant. Front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue raised against the hard palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part of the tongue raised against the soft palate.

Forelingual – articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the upper teeth or the teeth ridge.

Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis consonants).

Free accentual variants – they are variants of individual pronunciation — interidiolectal variants. E.g. 'hospliable, hos' pitable.

Free variations — intraidiolectal and interidiolectal variations which are spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctive.

Free word accent — the type of accent which is characterized by the free accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can be stressed — the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: 'wonder,'wonderfully and b) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.

Fricative consonants — produced by friction of the flow of air through
the narrowing formed by articulatory organs.

Frictionless — produced without any audible friction.

Frictionless continuants — the term may be used in reference to constrictive sonants /w, r, j/, which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged
or continued.

Front of the tongue — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade
and the middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians.

Front-retracted vowels – vowels in the production of which the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised.

Front vowels – vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate.

Fully voiced — consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last stage of their articulation.

Functional — phonological, connected with differentiatory function.

Functional phonetics — the branch of phonetics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds.

Functions of a phoneme — in speech a phoneme performs three functions: 1. distinctive, 2. constitutive and 3. recognitive; they are inseparable.

General American (G.A.) — the most widespread type of educated American speech.

General phonetics — analysis, description, and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.

Glide — that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element,
the full articulation of which is not accomplished.

Glottal sound –when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air passes out of the mouth cavity and consonant sound /h/ is pronounced.

Glottal stop – a speech sound made by completely closing and then opening the glottis, which reminds a slight cough and may take the place of [t] between vowel sounds or may be used before a vowel sound.

Glottis – the space between the vocal cords, which produce the sound
of the voice by movements in which this space is repeatedly opened and closed.

Grapheme — an orthographic unit with which a phoneme can be correlated.

Hard palate – the bony front part of the top of the mouth.

Head — stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the unstressed syllables.

Height — the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels.

Height of the tongue — the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and which determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.

Historical assimilation — sound changes, which are the result of the historical development of the language.

Historical phonetics – that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.

Hold — the second stage of a single sound articulation.

Homographs — words that are similar in orthography but different
in pronunciation and meaning.

Homophones — words that are similar in pronunciation but different
in orthography and meaning.

Idiolect — the individual speech of a member of a language community.

1diophone — one and the same speech sound which is pronounced differently in different idiolects.

Inhalation — breathing the air in.

Initial phase — the first phase of a sound articulation.

Instrumental phonetics — different techniques and devices used in experimental phonetics.

Interdental articulation — articulation characterized by the interdental; position of the tip of the tongue in articulating /θ, ð/. In speech these sounds are often pronounced as dental, with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper teeth.

Interdental sounds – consonant sounds produced when the tip of the tongue is in the position between the upper and lower teeth.

Intermittent closure — this type of closure is formed when the tip
of the tongue is rapidly tapping against the teethridge as in the articulation
of trilled, or rolled /р/.

Intonation – a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed
in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody.

Intonation group – an actualized sense group.

Intrusive sounds — alien to the word, but pronounced in actual speech
for the purpose of linking.

Jaws — parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which
the mouth can be opened and closed.

Junction — the joining of two sounds or words.

Juncture — the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.

Kinetic — relating to motion, producing motion.

Kymograph —the apparatus used to record speech sounds graphically. Kymograms help to ascertain the quality of various sounds.

Labial sounds – consonant sounds articulated by the lips.

Labialization — lip rounding.

Labialized vowels – vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding.

Larynx — an organ of the respiratory tract above the windpipe. It consists
of an elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords.

Lateral — having to do with the sides of the tongue.

Lateral sounds —sounds in the articulation of which the air passages
(or a passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time
the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.

Law of conditioned allophonic similarity — two more or less similar sounds, which are at the same time more or less different, are allophones
of the same phoneme, if their difference is due to non-distinctive factors.

Law of great phonemic dissimilarity — entirely different sounds such
as a vowel and a consonant cannot be allophones of the same phoneme.

Laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution — 1. if different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they are allophones of different phonemes; 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.

Lax vowels — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension
of the tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as
in the articulation of tense vowels.

Length of the sound — length of the sound waves in the articulation
of a sound.

Lenis (pl. lenes) — pronounced with weak articulation.

Letters — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech sounds.

Level tone — tone neutral in its communicative function, which is used mostly in poetry.

Light — in phonetics this term is equivalent to clear.

Lingual sounds – consonant sounds articulated with the help of the tongue.

Linguistic functions — in phonetics they are connected with phonemic, significant properties of sound, syllable, stress, and intonation.

Lip positions — different positions of lips, which change the articulation
of sounds and their tamber.

Literary pronunciation: RP (received pronunciation) or Public School Pronunciation — the pronunciation of educated people.

Local differences — dialectal differences in the pronunciation of the same sounds or words.

Logical stress – the singling out of the word, which seems to be most important in the sentence.

Long vowels – the vowels having a relatively bigger length, or quantity
in comparison with the short vowels.

Loose transition — articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the final stage of the first sound is not affected by the initial stage of the second sound.

Low Level tone — characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables
of parenthetic groups or long tails.

Low vowels – vowel pronounced with the low position of the bulk
of the tongue.

Lungs — the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce sounds.

Medial sonants — sounds articulated with the air-passage through
the middle part of the tongue. For example: /w, r, j/.

Mediolingual consonants – consonants produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate. Mediolingual consonants are always palatal.

Melody – changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.

Merging of stages — coincidence of the last stage of the first sound in the articulation of a word with the first stage of the second sound.

Method of minimal pairs — the discovery of as many pairs of words
as possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound for another.

Method of distinctive oppositions — this method enables to prove whether the phonetic difference is relevant or not.

Methods of phonetic analysis — different methods used in the study and investigation of different phonetic phenomena.

Metronome — a clockwork device with a moving audible indicator, which can be regulated to different speeds and used to mark equal periods. It is used
in phonetics to teach rhythm.

Mid —neither high nor low position of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction.

Middle part of the tongue — the central part of the dorsum of the tongue which is opposite the hard palate. It lies between the blade and the back
of the tongue.

Middle phase — the second phase of articulation, or the hold.

Minimal distinctions — the smallest differences, that help to recognize and differentiate words.

Minimal pair — a pair the distinctive difference between the members
of which are based upon one distinctive difference.

Mispronounce — to pronounce sounds or words with mistakes.

Mistakes in pronunciation — different deviations from the teaching norm
in the pronunciation of a foreign language.

Monophthong – a vowel sound in the articulation of which the articulating organs are more or less stable.

Monosyllable – a word consisting of one syllable.

Monotone — equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.

Monotonous — pronounced with equal tone.

Morphograph — separate graphemic unit which is a graphemic reflex
of a morpheme.

Morphophonology — this branch of phonology studies the distribution
of morphologically correlated sounds in order to establish their phonemic status.

Mouth — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and
the palate with the uvula.

Mouth cavity — the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.

Mutual assimilation — bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds equally influence each other.

Narrow — the variety of high, mid, and low positions of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction.

Narrow passage — the term is conventional and characterizes the state
of the passage for the flow of air in the articulation of vowels or consonants.

Narrow transcription — the system of transcription signs into which additional symbols are included which correspond to allophones of phonemes.

Nasal cavity — immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx;
it is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw with the teethridge and
the palate.

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