Аронсон Э. 46 страница

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42. Leishman, К. (1987, February). The Atlantic Monthly. Heterosexuals and AIDS, p. 44.

43. Williams, S.S., Kimble, D.L., Cowell, N.H., Weiss, L.H., Newton, K.J., Fisher, J.D., & Fisher, W.A. (1992). College students use implicit personality theory instead of safe sex. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 921-933.

44. Hirschom, M. (1987, April 29). AIDS not seen as a major threat by heterosexuals on campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education.

45. Aronson, E. (1989). Excuses, excuses, excuses: Why sexually active college students do not use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the Western Psychological Association, 1989.

46. Aronson, E. (1991). How to persuade sexually active college students to use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California.

47. Nisbett, R., Borgida, E, Crandall, R., & Reed, Н. (1976). Popular introduction: Information is not always informative. In J.S. Carroll and J.W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior^. 227-236). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum. Nisbett, R., & Ross, L.

(1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hamill, R., DeCamp Wllson, Т., & Nisbett, R. (1980). Insensiv-ity to sample bias: Generalizing from atypical cases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 578-589. Шелли Тейлор, социальный психолог-когнитивист, утверждает, что эффект <яркости> не подтверждается большинством экспериментальных результатов. Обсуждение этой темы - см.: Taylor, S., & Thompson, S. (1982). Stalking the elusive <vividness> effect. Psychological Review, 89, 155-181.

48. Gonzales, M.H., Aronson, E., & Costanzo, M. (1988). Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1049- 1066.

49. Hovland, С., Lumsdain, A., & Sheffield, F. (1949). Experiments on mass communications. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

50. Miller, N., & Campbell, D. (1959). Recency and primacy in persuasion as a function of the timing of speeches and measurements. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59,1-9.

51. Zimbardo, P. (1960). Involvement and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion conformity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60, 86-94.

52. Whittaker, J.O. (1963). Opinion change as a function of communication-attitude discrepancy. Psychological Reports, 13, 763-772.

53. Hovland, С., Harvey, O.J., & Sherif, M. (1957). Assimilation and contrast effects in reaction to communication and attitude change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55,244-252.

54. Aronson, E., Turner, J., & Carlsmith, J.M. (1963). Communication credibility and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67,31-36.

55. Zellner, M. (1970). Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 87-93.

56. Janis, I.J., Kaye, D., & Kirschner, P. (1965). Facilitating effects of <eating-while-reading> on responsiveness to persuasive communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 181-186.

57. Hass, R.G., & Grady, K. (1975). Temporal delay, type of forewarning, and resistance to influence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, II, 459-469.

58. Freedman, J., & Sears, D. (1965). Warning, distraction, and resistance to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 262-266.

59. Brehm, J. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.

60. Bensley, L.S., & Wu, R. (1991). The role ofpsychological reactance in drinking following alcohol prevention messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1111-1124.

61. Heilman, M. (1976). Oppositional behavior as a function of influence attempt intensity and retaliation threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 574- 578.

62. Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1977). Forewarning, cognitive responding, and resistance to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 645-655.

63. Festinger, L., & Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 359-366.

64. Sloan, L., Love,R., & Ostrom, T. (1974). Political heckling: Who really loses? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 518-525.

65. McGuire, W., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy ofvarious types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 327-337.

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67. Pryor, В., & Steinfatt, W. (1978). The effects of initial belief level on inoculation theory and its proposed mechanisms. Human Communications Research, 4, 217-230.

68. Canon, L. (1964). Self-confidence and selective exposure to information. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Conflict, desision, and dissonance (pp. 83-96). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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70. Статистика взята из: Pratkanis, A.R., & Aronson, E. (1992). Age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.

71. Liebert, R. (1975, July 16). Testimony before the Subcommittee on Communications of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.

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73. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorelli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17-40). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum.

74. Цит. по: Newsweek, December 6, 1982, p. 140.

75. Haney, С., & Manwlati, /.(1981). Television criminology: Network illusions of criminal justice realities. In Readings about the social animal (6th ed., pp. 120-131). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

76. Hennigan, K., Heath, L., Wharton, J.D., DelRosario, M., Cook, Т., & Colder, B.

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77. Ronis,D.,Baumgardner, M., Leippe, M.,Cacioppo, J., & Greenwald, A. (1977). In search of reliable persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 548-569.

К главе 4 Социальное познание

1. Lippmann,W. (\911).Public opinion.^ew York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co.

2. Именно в те времена возник обычай, согласно которому мужчина должен был идти так, чтобы <прикрывать> женщину от проезжей части улицы. В эпоху средневековья подобный обычай казался вполне осмысленным: сапоги мужчины, если их забрызгает грязью, было легче отчистить, чем платье женщины.

3. Panati, С. (1987). Extraordinary origins of everyday things. New York: Harper & Row.

4. Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn 't so. New York: Free Press.

5. Bentham, J. (1876/1948). A fragment on government and an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation.Oxford: Blackwell.Pyc.nep, - Избранные сочинения Иеремии Бентама. Т. 1. Спб., Русская книжная торговля. 1867, Современную версию <калькуляции блага> - см.: Fishbein, M., &.А^еп, J. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

6. Kelley, H.H. (1967), Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192-241). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Kelley, H.H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107-128.

7. Высказывается интересная мысль о том, что даже ученые не всегда мыслят как ученые, подпадая под действие тех предрассудков, которые описаны в данной главе. CM. Greenwald, A. G., Pratkanis, A. R., Leippe, M.R., & Baumgardner, M.H. (1986). Under what conditions does theory obstruct research process? Psychological Review, 93, 216-229.

8. Fiske, S. Т., & Taylor, S.E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

9. Bronowski, J. (1973). The ascent of man. Boston: Little, Brown, Co. Pratkanis, A.R., & Aronson, E. (1991). The age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.

10. Pratkanis, A.R., Farquhar, P.H., Silbert, S., & Hearst, J. (1989). Decoys produce contrast effects and alter choice probabilities. University of California, Santa Cruz.

II. Kenrick, D. Т., & Guttieres, S.E. (1980). Contrast effects in judgements of attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social probern. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,131-140.

12. Higgins, E.T., Rholes, W.S., & Jones, C.R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154.

13. Heath, L., Acklin, M., & Wiley, K. (1991). Cognitive heuristics and AIDS risk assessment among physicians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1859- 1867.

14. Rogers, E.M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988), Agenda-setting research: Where has it been, Where is it going? In J.A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication Yearbook II (pp.

555-594). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

15. McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-187.

16. lyengar, S., & Kinder, D.R. (1987). News that matters. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

17. Цит. по: Rogers and Dearing, Agenda-setting research. 18, Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39,341-350.

19. Gonzales, M.H.,Aronson, E., & Costan^o, M. (1988). Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1046- 1066.

20. Meyerowitz, В.E., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,500-510.

21. Asch, S. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41,258-290.

22. Jones, E.E., Rock, L., Shaver, K.G., Goethals, G.R., & Ward, L.M. (1968). Pattern of performance and ability attribution: An unexpected primacy effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 317-340.

23. Aronson, J.M., & Jones, E.E. (1992). Inferring abilities after influencing performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 277-299.

24. Zukier, ff. (1982). The dilution effect: The role of the correlation and dispersion of predictor variables in the use of nondiagnostic information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43,1163-1174.

25. Nisbett, R., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sherman, S.J., & Corty, E. (1984). Cognitive heuristics. In R.S.Wyer & T.K.Srull (Eds.), Handbook of Social Cognition (Vol. I, pp. 189-286), Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.

26. <Which cereal for breakfast?> Consumer Reports, February 1981, pp. 68-75.

27. Сравнение основано на: <Eating to lower your blood cholesterol>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH Publication No. 87-2920, September 1987. Было показано, что насыщенные жирные кислоты - те, что содержатся в мясе животных и отдельных видах растительных жиров (в кокосовом, шоколадном, пальмовом и во всех гидрированных маслах), повышают уровень холестерола. Изготовители хлопьев иногда используют подобные жиры

в своих продуктах - особенно кокосовое, пальмовое и гидрированные масла. Чтобы исключить их, многие производители хлопьев в настоящее время заняты изменением состава своих продуктов - так что, перед тем как принять окончательное решение, какой именно сорт покупать, внимательно ознакомьтесь с тем, что написано на коробке.

28. Nisbett & Ross (1980); Shweder, R. (1977). Likeness and likelihood in everyday thought: Magical thinking in judgments about personality. Current Anthropology, 18, 637-658.

29. Pratkanis, A.R. (1989). The cognitive representation of attitudes. In A.R. Pratkanis, S.J. Bleckler, & A.G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 71-98). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum. Pratkanis, A.R., & Greenwald, A.G. (1989). A socio-cognitive model of attitude structure and function. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 245-285). New York: Academic Press.

30. Pratkanis, A.R. (1988). The attitude heuristic and selective fact identification. British Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 257-263.

31. Thistlewaite, D. (1950). Attitude and structure as factors in the distortion of reasoning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 45, 442-458.

32. Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The <false-consensus> effect: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution process. Journal of Experimental Soda! Psychology, 13,279-301.

33. Pratkanis, Cognitive representation.

34. О лабораторной демонстрации - см.: Gilovich, Т. (1981). Seeing the past in the present: The effect of associations to familiar judgments and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 797-808.

35. Darley, J.M., & Gross, P.ff. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 20-33.

36. Hamilton, D.L., & Ross, T.L. (1980). Illusory correlation and the maintenance ofstereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 832-845.

37. Pratkanis, A.R. Личное сообщение.

38. Chapman, L.J. (1967). Illusory correlation in observational report. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 151-155. Chapman, L.J., & Chapman, J.P.

(1967). Genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72, 193-204. Chapman, L.J., & Chapman, J.P. (1969). Illusory correlation as an obstacle to the use of valid psychodiagnostic signs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 74,271-280.

39. Park, В., & Rothbart, M. (1982). Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 1051-1068.

40. Обзоры и дискуссию - см.: Tajfel, Н. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner, J.C. (1987), Rediscovering the social group. New York: Basil Blackwell.

41. Loflus, E.F., & Loftus, G.R. (1980). On the permanence of stored information in the human brain. American Psychologist, 35, 409-420.

42. Loftus, E.F., & Ketchum, К. (1991). Witness forthe defense. New York: St.Martin's Press.

43. Loftus, E.F., & Palmer, J.C. (1974). Reconstruction ofautomobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585-589.

44. Loftus, E.F. (1977). Shifting human color memory. Memory and Cognition, 5, 696-699.

45. Loftus, E.F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518-537.

46. Ross, M., McFarland, С., & Fletcher, G.O.J. (1981). The effect of attitude on the recall of personal history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 627-634.

47. Gibbs, G. (1981). Teaching students to learn. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.

48. Pratkanis, A.R., Eskenaw, J., & Greenwald, A. G. (1990). What you expect is what you believe (but not necessarily what you get): On the effectiveness of subliminal self-help audiotapes.Unpublished manuscript.University of Santa Cruz. Greenwald, A.G., Spangenberg, E.R., Pratkanis, A.R., & Eskena^i, J. (1991). Double-blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psychological Science, 12, 119-122.

49. Conway, M., & Ross, M. (1984). Getting what you want by revising what you had. JoumalofPersonality andSocial Psychology, 47, 738-748.

50. Wyatt, D.F., & Campbell, D. T. (1951). On the liability of stereotype or hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 496-500. Bruner, J.S., & Potter, M.C. (1964). Science, 144, 424-425.

51. Snyder, M., & Swann, W.B. (1978). Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1202-1212.

52. Fischhoff, В. (1975). Hindsight does not equal foresight: The effect of outcome knowledge on judgment under uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 288-299. Fischhoff, В. (1977). Perceived informativeness offacts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3,349-358.

53. Greenwald, A.G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35, 603-618.

54. LaPier, R. (1934). Attitudes versus actions. Social Forces, 13, 230-237.

55. Wicker, A. ^.(1969). Attitudes versus actions: The relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social Issues, 25 (4), 41-78.

56. Jones, E.E. (1990). Interpersonal perception. New York: W.H. Freeman. Jones, E.E., & Davis, K.E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 219-266). New York: Academic Press.

57. Jones, E.E., & Harris, V.A. (1967). The attribution of attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 3, 1-24.

58. Favo, R.H. (1986). How do attitudes guide behavior? In R.M. Sorrentino & E.T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (pp. 204-242). New York: Guilford Press. Fa^io, R.H. (1989). On the power and functionality of attitudes: The role of attitude accessibility. In A.R. Pratkanis, S.J. Breckler, &A.G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 153-179). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum.

59. Fa^io, R.H., & Williams, C.J. (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relations: An investigation of the 1984 presidential elections. JoumalofPersonality and Social Psychology, 51, 505-514.

60. Fazio, R.H., Chen, J., McDonel, E.G., & Sherman, S.J. (1982). Attitude accessibility, attitude-behavior consistency, and the strength of the object-evaluation association. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 339-357. Fa^io, R.H., Powell, M.C., & 456

Herr, P.M. (1983). Toward a process model of attitude-behavior relation: Accesing one's attitude upon mere observation of the attitude object. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 723-735. Favo, R.H., & Zanna, M. P. (1981). Direct experience and attitude-behavior consistency. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 14, pp. 162-202). New York: Academic Press. Regan, D.T., & Fa^io, R.H. (1977). On the consistency between attitudes and behavior: Look to the method of attitude formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13,38-45.

61. Herr, P.M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1106-1115.

62. Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortion in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173-220). New York: Academic Press.

63. Bierbrauer, G. (1973). Effect of set, perspective, and temporal factors in attribution. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University. Цит. по: Ross (1977).

64. Ross, L., Amabile, T.M., & Steinmet^, J.L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485-494.

65. Ответы: стадион <Форбс> в Питтсбурге, Вильнюс и 4 июля 1826 года.

66. Jones, Е.Е., & Nisbett, R.E. (1971). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior. In Е.Е. Jones, D.E. Kanouse, H.H. Kelley, R.E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 79-94). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

67. CM: Jones, Е.Е., Rock, L., Shaver, K.G., Goethals, G. R., & Ward, L.M. (1968). Pattern of performance and ability attribution: An unexpected primacy effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 317-349. McArthur, L. (1972). The how and what of why: Some determinants and consequences of causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 171-193. Nisbett, R.E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., & Marecek, J. (1973). Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 154-164.

68. Storms, M.D. (1973). Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing the perspective of actors and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 165-175.

69. James, W. (1890/1950). The principles of psychology (pp. 314-315). New York: Dover.

70. Greenwald, A.G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35, 603-618. Greenwald, A.G., & Pratkanis, A.R.

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71. Greenwald, The totalitarian ego.

72. Jervis, R. (1976). Perception and misperception in international politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.

73. Longer, E.J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311-329. Longer, E.J. (1977). The psychology of chance. Journal of the Theory of Social Behavior, 7, 185-208.

74. Petty, R.E., & Brock, T.C. (1979). Effects of<Bamum> personality assessments on cognitive behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 201-203.

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76. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, April 22, 1979, p. 35.

77. Greenberg, J., Pysy^ynski, Т., & Solomon, S. (1982). The self-serving attributional bias: Beyond self-presentation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 56-67. Arkin, P.M., & Maruyama, G.M. (1979). Attribution, affect, and college exam performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 85-93. Gilovich, Т. (1983). Biased evaluation and persistence in gambling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, ^,1110-1126. Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (1979). Egocentric biases in availability and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 322-336. Breckler, S.J., Pratkanis, A.R., & McCann, D. (1991). The representation of self in multidimensional cognitive space. British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 97-112. Johnston, W.A. (1967). Individual performance and self-evaluation in a simulated team. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 2, 309-328. Cunningham, J.D., Starr, P.A., & Kanouse, D.E.

(1979). Self as actor, active observer, and passive observer: Implications for causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1146-1152.

78. Greenwald, A.G., & Bleckler, S.J. (1985). To whom is the self presented? In B.R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 126-145). New York: McGraw-Hill.

79. Miller, D.T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213-225.

80. Weary (Bradley), G. (1978). Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 56-71. Weary, G. (1980). Examination of affect and egotism as mediators of bias in causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 348-357. Weary, G" Harvey, J.H., Schwieger, P., Olson, C.T., Perloff, R., & Pritchard, S.

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81. Alloy, L.B., & Abramson, L.Y. (1979). Judgement of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108,441-485.

82. Grove, J.R., Hanrahan, S.J., & Mcinman, A. (1991). Success/failure bias in attribution across involvement categories in sport. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17,93-97.

83. Taylor, S.E. (1989). Positive illusions: Creative self-deception and the healthy mind. New York: Basic Books.

84. Seligman, M.E.P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf. Рус. пер. - Зелигман M. Как научиться оптимизму. Советы на каждый день. M., 1997.

К главе 5 Самооправдание

1. Prasad, J. (1950). A comparative study of rumors and reports in earthquakes. British Journal of Psychology, 41, 129-144.

2. Sinha, D. (1952). Behavior in a catastrophic situation: A psychological study of reports and rumors. British Journal of Psychology, 43, 200-209.

3. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

4. Kassarjian, H., & Cohen, J. (1965). Cognitive dissonance and consumer behavior. California Management Review, 8, 55-64.

5. Tagliaco^o, R. (1979). Smokers' self-categorization and the reduction of cognitive dissonance. Addictive Behaviors, 4, 393-399.

6. Goleman, D. (1982, January). Make-or-break resolutions. Psychology Today, p. 19.

7. Austin American, November 18, 1971, p. 69.

8. Hastorf, A., & Cantril, H. (1954). They saw a game: A case study. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 129-134.

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