F) Occasional or potential words

A great number of lexical items actually used by English-speaking people cannot practically be counted. These words are usually referred to as “occasional”, “potential” or “nonce-words”. The terms imply that vocabulary units of this type are created for a given occasion only and may be considered as but “potentially” existing in English vocabulary. They may be used by any member of a speech community whenever the need to express a certain concept arises. These are derived and compound words, which are formed on highly productive and active word-building patterns. If we count up all the words that may be formed in this way, the number of vocabulary units will be considerably magnified.

3. The problem of the systemic character of the English vocabulary is connected with the classification of the vocabulary, because the vocabulary is not chaotic but there is a strict and definite order in it.

Vocabulary is a certain structural system made of numerous interdependent and interrelated groups of words or subsystems. The systemic character of the vocabulary is shown in its different classifications. Different aspects of a word may be taken as a basis for classification and relatively we’ll have different groups and subgroups of connected or opposite units.

Structurally the words may be classified into:

· ______________ (their stem contains one free morpheme): dog, hand;

· ________________ (no less than two morphemes of which at least one is bound): dogged, doggedly, handy, handful;

· ____________________ (consist of no less than two free morphemes): dog-cheap, dog-days, handball, handbook;

· ___________________________ (consist of two free morphemes and one bound referring to the whole combination): dog-legged, left-handed.

Stylistically words may be classified into:

· ___________________ – may be used in any situation, every day, everywhere and by everybody, regardless of profession, occupation, educational level, age group or geographical location. These are words without which no human communication would be possible as they denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance (house, bread, summer, winter, child, mother, green, difficult, to go, to stand, etc). They lack any connotations (i.e. attendant meanings). Their meanings are broad, general and directly convey the notion, without supplying any additional information. For instance, the verb to walk means merely to move from place to place on foot whereas in the meanings of its synonyms to stride, to stroll, to trot, to stagger some additional information is encoded as they each describe a different manner of walking, a different gait, tempo, purposefulness or lack of purpose and even length of paces;

· ____________________________ – are words suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres and suggestive of specific conditions of communication. Every stylistically colored word presupposes the possibility of choice, which means that there must exist a neutral synonym to which it is contrasted. They may be further classified into formal (literary) and informal (colloquial).

Formal words occur ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. They are usually found in monologues addressed by one person to many, and often prepared in advance. Words are used with precision, the vocabulary is elaborate, generalized – national, not limited socially or geographically.

The stylistically formal part of the vocabulary is composed of:

- special terminology further subdivided according to various specific branches of knowledge and art in which it is used (amplitude, antibiotic, radar, frame, gene, vitamin, metaphor, metonymy, behaviorism, etc);

- learned words common to all fields of knowledge and official vocabulary used in documentation and business or political transactions (approximate, commence, compute, exclude, indicate, homogeneous, initial, miscellaneous, multiplicity, mental, respectively, assist, endeavor, proceed, sufficient, approximately, inquire); some archaic connectives (hereby, thereby, hereafter, thereupon, etc); double conjunctions (moreover, furthermore, however, such as); group conjunctions (in consequence, inasmuch as); some set expressions (as follows, as early as, in terms of);

- literary (refined, elevated) words (solitude, sentiment, fascination, fastidiousness, delusion, meditation, felicity, elusive, cordial, illusionary) and poetic diction including lofty words (array – clothes, billow – wave, gore – blood, steed – horse, woe – sorrow; behold – see, deem – think, slay – kill; fair – beautiful, murky – grim, uncouth – strange; ye – you, naught – nothing; albeit – although, ere – before). Modes of poetic diction stand close to literary words, many words from which, in fact, belong to both these categories. Yet, poetic words have a lofty, high-flown, sometimes archaic coloring.

Informal vocabulary is used in ________________________________________________________________. The vocabulary is determined socially or regionally (dialect). The informal vocabulary is traditionally subdivided into:

- literary colloquial (cultivated speech) – is the vocabulary used by educated people in the course of ordinary conversation or when writing letters to intimate friends (I’m most grateful, to keep smb. on the run, for all that; pal and chum for friend; bite and snack fo r meal; hello is an informal greetingand so long a form of parting; start, go on, finish and to be through; to have a crush on somebody for to be in love; a bit of and a lot of; a considerable number of shortenings, such as pram, exam, fridge, flu, prop, zip, movie; verbs with post-positional adverbs: put up, put over, make up, make out, do away, turn up, turn in, etc);

- familiar colloquial – is more emotional and mush more free and careless than literary colloquial, it is also characterized by a great number of jocular or ironical expressions and nonce-words (a lot of moonshine, to give a scare, to have a drink, to cool off, a bit of scare; doc for doctor; hi for how do you do; ta-ta for good-bye; goings-on for behavior, usually with a negative connotation; to kid smb for tease; to pick up smb for make a quick and easy acquaintance; to shut up for keep silent, etc);

- low colloquial – is illiterate popular speech; it is different from familiar colloquial in that it contains more vulgar words, and sometimes also elements of dialect (damned decent of you, dead sure, hell);

- folk speech (dialect) – it is very difficult to find hard and fast rules that help to establish the boundary between low colloquial and dialect because in actual communication the two are often used together. The basis of distinction may be purely social. We should certainly distinguish between local (territorial) dialects (the Northern dialect spoken in the North of England and the South of Scotland; the Midland dialect – the national language of the country; the Southern dialect spoken between the Thames and the English channel) and “class” dialects or jargons. Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of the vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, i.e. words that are stylistically marked and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words;

- slang – are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics of discourse. For the most part they sound somewhat vulgar, cynical and harsh, aiming to show the object of speech in the light of an off-hand contemptuous ridicule. They are subdivided into general slang and special slang. General slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group (swell; attic, blighter, rotter, nut for head, cock-eyed for drunk, mug for face, saucers, blinkers for eyes, trap for mouth in Keep your trap shut; dogs for feet, to leg (it) for to walk, flippers for hands, etc). S pecial slang is peculiar for some such groups (teenager slang, university slang, public school slang, football slang, sea slang, etc). Regarding professional words that are used by representatives of various trades in oral intercourse, it should be observed that when the word is the only name for special notion it belongs not to slang but to terminology. If, on the other hand, it is a jocular name for something that can be described in some other way, it is slang. But the borderline is not always sharp and distinct. There are cases when words originating as professional slang later on assume the dignity of special terms or pass on into general slang;

- argot – denotes a special vocabulary and idiom, used by a particular social or age group, especially by the criminal circles; its main point is to be unintelligible to outsiders.

The boundaries between various layers of colloquial vocabulary are not very sharply defined.

The basic vocabulary and the stylistically marked strata of the vocabulary do not exist independently but are closely interrelated. Most stylistically marked words have their neutral counterparts in the basic vocabulary (terms are an exception in this respect):

basic vocabulary	informal	formal
Begin	start, get started	commence
continue	go on, get on	proceed
End	finish, be through, be over	terminate
child, baby	kid, brat, bearn (dial)	infant, babe (poet)

The following table sums up the description of the stylistic strata of English vocabulary:

Stylistically-neutral words	Stylistically-marked words
informal	formal
Basic vocabulary	1. Colloquial words: a. literary; b. familiar; c. low. 2. Slang words. 3. Dialect words.	1. Learned words: a. literary; b. words of scientific prose; c. officialese; d. modes of poetic diction. 2. Archaic and obsolete words. 3. Professional terminology.

From the stylistic point of view there is also the opposition of emotionally colored and emotionally neutral words. Emotionally colored words are ________________________________________________________. A word acquires its emotional coloring, its power to evoke or directly express feelings as a result of its usage in emotional contexts reflecting emotional situations. Thus in the emotive phrases like a glorious idea, a lovely drink, a rotten business, a beastly weather, a murderous heat the emotional quality is based upon associations brought about by such notions as glory, love, rot, beast, murder and the objects they stand for.

The best-studied type of emotional words is interjections. They express emotions without naming them: Ah! Alas! Boy! Fiddlesticks! Bosh! Poppycock! Heavens! Hell! Nonsense!

A word may have some morphological features signaling its emotional force. These may be either morphemes, namely diminutive and derogatory affixes, or patterns. The diminutive group of suffixes may be exemplified by daddy, mummy, dearie, Johnny, duckling, girlie, darling, blackie, oldie; the derogatory ones by bastard, drunkard, dullard, princeling, weakling, gangster, mobster, youngster. It must be noted that the suffix –ster is derogatory only with nouns denoting persons, and neutral otherwise (roadster – an open automobile). There is a disparaging semi-affix –monger: panicmonger, scandalmonger, scaremonger, warmonger (monger means “dealer”, “trader” and in this direct meaning is used in such words as cheesemonger, fishmonger, ironmomger).

The scarcity of emotional suffixes favors the appearance of such combinations as: little chap, old chap, old fellow, poor devil, where the emotional effect results from the interaction of elements. Usually personal nouns formed by composition from complete sentences or phrases are derogatory: never-do-well, stick-in-the-mud, sit-by-the-fire, diehard. Here also belong personal nouns formed by conversion (a bore, a swell) or by combined composition and conversion from verbs with postpositives (a comeback – a person reinstated in his former position, a stand-in – a substitute, a stuck-up = an upstart – a person who assumes arrogant tone or one who has risen from insignificance, a washout – a failure). There are a number of emotional nonce words created by transforming whole phrases into verbs to express irritation: Now well! – Don’t now-well me! How on earth! – Don’t begin how-on-earthing! Oh, bloody hell! – You don’t bloody-hell here.

As it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between emotional and emphatic or intensifying words, the latter are usually considered a specific group of the emotional words. Intensifiers convey special intensity to what is said, they indicate the special importance of the thing expressed. The simplest and most often used of these are such words as ever (whatever, whenever, whyever), even, all, so; intensifying adverbs: awfully, dreadfully, fiercely, terribly marvelously, tremendously, adjectives: absolute, mere, etc. Sometimes it is very difficult to tell an intensifier from an emotionally colored word, because in many cases both functions are fulfilled by one and the same word, as in the following example: “You think I know damn nothing”, he said indignantly. “Actually I know damn all.” An intensifying function may be also given to sound-imitative interjections, as in the following: I was an athlete, you see, one of those strong-as-a-horse boys. And never a day’s illness – until bang, comes a coronary, or whoosh, go the kidneys!

Emotional words only indicate the presence of emotion but very seldom are capable of specifying its exact character. Evaluatory words differ from other emotional words in that they can not only indicate the presence of emotion but also specify it. For example the names of animals when used metaphorically have a strong evaluatory force: colt – a young inexperienced person, jay – a foolish person who talks a lot, pup – a conceited young man. A list of examples may be very long: ass, cow, goose, pig, rat, shark, snake, etc.

Emotionally colored words (emotional, emphatic, evaluatory words) should not be confused with stylistically colored words, which possess some definite stylistic features although in actual speech these properties may coincide. For example, words expressing similar emotions may belong to different styles and the vulgar Damn! That can be at best qualified as familiar colloquial can be compared with the lofty and poetical Alas! Each of them in its own way express vexation, so that their emotional coloring, though not identical, is similar; stylistically they are very different.

A difficult problem is presented by words naming emotions: love, hate, fear, fright, rage, etc. Some authors think that they cannot be considered emotional because they don’t express the emotions but simply name them.

The emotionally colored words are contrasted to the emotionally neutral ones. The words of this latter group express notions but do not say anything about the state of the speaker or his mood (copy, report, reach, say, well are all emotionally neutral). The difference between the sets is not very clear-cut, there are numerous boundary cases because many words are neutral in their direct meaning and emotional under special conditions of context.

Sometimes more than one aspect of a word is taken into consideration for classification. An example is part-of-speech classification. Such aspects of the word are considered: meaning underlying concrete lexical meaning of words (abstract categorical meaning); a system of grammatical categories characteristic of this class (paradigm); specific syntactic function; special types of form-building and word-building patterns.

Parts of speech can further be subdivided into lexico-grammatical groups. By a lexico-grammatical group we understand a class of words _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. These groups are subsets of the parts of speech, several lexico-grammatical groups constitute one part of speech (nouns: personal names, animal names, collective names for people, collective names for animals, abstract nouns, material nouns, object nouns, proper names for people, toponymic proper nouns, etc). If, for instance, we consider a group of nouns having the following characteristics: two number forms (the singular and the plural); two case forms; animate, substituted in the singular by he or she; common, i.e. denoting a notion and not one particular object (as proper names do); able to combine regularly with the indefinite article, some of them characterized by such suffixes as –er/-or, -ist, -ee, -eer and the semi-affix –man, we obtain the so-called personal names (agent, baker, artist, volunteer, visitor, workman).

Lexico-grammatical groups should not be confused with parts of speech. For example, audience and honesty belong to the same part of speech but to different lexico-grammatical groups because their lexico-grammatical meaning is different: audience is a group of people, and honesty is a quality; they have different paradigms: audience gas two forms, singular and plural, honesty is used only in the singular; also honesty is hardly ever used in the Possessive case unless personified. Being a collective noun, the word audience is substituted by they; honesty is substituted by it.

Other words belonging to the same lexico-grammatical group as audience are people, party, jury, but not flock or swarm, because the lexico-grammatical meaning of the last two words is different: they are substituted by it and denote groups of living beings but not persons, unless, of course, they are used metaphorically.

A further subdivision within the lexico-grammatical groups is achieved in the thematic subgroups, which ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ (terms of kinship, colour terms, military terms, etc). When grammatical meaning is not taken into consideration, we obtain the so-called __________________________groups. To these groups we refer words of different parts of speech united by one theme or topic (light n, bright a, shine v – are connected with the notion of light; blind a, see v, eye n; film n, shoot v, black-and-white a; painting n, depict v, exquisite a).

This approach resembles the theory of semantic fields. Semantic fields are groups of words that are classified according to the concepts underlying their meaning. Semantic fields comprise words that have common concepts and cover the same sector of reality (semantic field of colour, semantic field of negative emotions). The members of the semantic fields are not synonyms but all of them are joined together by some common semantic component (the concept of colors, the concept of kinship, etc).

All members of the field are semantically interdependent as each member helps to delimit and to determine the meaning of its neighbour and is semantically delimited and determined by them. So the word-meaning is to a great extent determined by the place it occupies in the semantic field. We can’t know the exact meaning of the word if we don’t know the structure of the semantic field to which the word belongs, the number of the members and concepts covered by them. For example, the meaning of the word captain cannot be properly understood until we know the semantic field in which this term operates – the army, the navy, or the merchant service. It follows that the meaning of the word captain is determined by the place it occupies among the terms of the relevant rank system. In other words we know what captain means only if we know whether his subordinate is called mate or first officer (merchant service), commander (navy) or lieutenant (army).

Semantic fields may be very extensive and cover big conceptual areas: man, universe. Words making up such semantic fields may belong to different parts of speech. For example, in the semantic field of space we find nouns: expanse, extent, surface, etc; verbs: extend, spread, span, etc; adjectives: spacious, roomy, vast, broad, etc.

Within semantic fields smaller groupings are singled out. They are the groups of one part of speech with the identical of one of the components of their meaning found in all the lexical units making up these groups. They are called lexico-semantic groups (LSG of nouns denoting parts of human body, LSG of verbs of moving, LSG of adjectives of emotions: f.e. saleswoman has semantic component “human”, “female”, “professional”. Thus it may be included into LSG of “human” together with man, boy, girl, etc; of “female” together with girl, wife, woman; of “professional” together with a teacher, a pilot, a butcher, etc).

Smaller groupings within LSG are based on the similarity or polarity of lexical meanings. They are called synonyms and antonyms.

Synonyms are words ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Types of synonyms. Synonyms may be ideographic, stylistic, and absolute. Ideographic synonyms differ in _____________________________ meaning, e.g. to seem, to appear, to look (He seems (looks, appears) tired); to like, to love; to glare, to gaze; a stroll, a trot. S tylistic synonyms differ in _________________________ meaning, namely in stylistic reference (see – neutral, behold – узреть – bookish; hope – neutral, expect and anticipate – literary; to look - to peep; to begin - to commence; sky – heaven; handsome – pretty; ire – anger; maid – girl; bliss – happiness; mute – silent; quit – leave). Along with elevation of meaning there is the reverse process, that of degradation of meaning (begin – fire away “валяй”; face – muzzle; to steal – to pinch; to eat – to devour, to gorge, to guzzle). But in fact the interrelation of the denotational and connotational meaning of synonyms is rather complex. Difference of the connotational semantic component is invariably accompanied by some difference of the denotational meaning of synonyms. For example, in a synonymic group to ask, to inquire, to question, to interrogate the word to ask is the synonymic dominant and the general term for putting a question, to inquire implies asking for information, to question is to inquire by putting repeated questions, both being bookish, etc. Therefore, the subdivision of synonyms into ideographic and stylistic is open to question. Absolute synonyms are very rare. They coincide ________________________________________________________________ and are found in special terminology (fatherland – mother country, scarlet fever – scarlatina, noun – substantive, physician – doctor, seaman – sailor, basement – foundation, engine – motor, fan – ventilator, knife – cutter, oil – petrol, grease – lubricate, rotate – revolve, plane – aircraft, lorry – truck, tin – can, railway – railroad, pavement – sidewalk, cephalalgia – headache, epidermis – scarf-skin, haemorrhage – bleeding, trachea – wind-pipe).

The semantic opposition between synonymous words is often based on their valency. The distributional difference between synonyms may lie, for instance, in the use of gerunds and infinitives after some verbs, e.g. to continue may be followed by both infinitive and gerund, to go on is a verb always followed by a gerund. Similarly adjective alone is known to function only as a predicative adjective, while lonely may function both predicatively and attributively.

As to the origin of synonyms, we should distinguish:

· synonyms which originated from _______________________________, mostly denoting different shades of common meaning: e.g. fast – speedy – swift; handsome – pretty – lovely; bold – manful – steadfast.

· synonyms created through _________________________________________: e.g. bairn – child (Scot.); charm – glamour (Scot.); ghost – bogle (Scot and North Engl.); mother – minny (Scot.); dark – murk (O.N.); stammer – mant (Scot.);

· synonyms which owe their origin to ______________________________ through crossing with other language: e.g. begin – commence; finish – end; help – aid; heaven – sky, raise – rear;

· synonyms connected with __________________________________________________________________________________: e.g. walk of life – occupation, profession; star-gazer – dreamer; pins and needles – the creeps, the shivers;

· synonyms connected with ____________________________________________ employed for certain stylistic purposes: e.g. to lie – to distort the fact; drunk – elevated; university – varsity; business – biz; to spend – to blow in; to scold – to call down; repetition – rep; to steal – to shoop. Euphemism is a word of more or less pleasant or at least inoffensive connotation, which substitutes one that is harsh, obscene, indelicate or otherwise unpleasant (lavatory – powder room, washroom, restroom, ladies’ room, gentlemen’s room, water-closet, public conveniences and even windsor castle, which is comical phrase for “deciphering” w.c.).

Synonyms often belong to several groups. Frequently a synonymic group consists not of a pair but of several synonyms. One of them is often a synonymic dominant defined by elements common to all synonyms of a given group, e.g. to surprise – to astonish – to amaze – to astound; to shout – to yell – to bellow – to roar; to shine – to flash – to blaze – to gleam – to glisten – to sparkle – to glitter – to shimmer – to glimmer; to tremble – to shiver – to shudder – to shake; to make – to produce – to create – to fabricate – to manufacture; angry – furious – enraged; fear – terror – horror.

The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way. It has the following characteristic features:

· high frequency of usage;

· broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words;

· broad general meaning;

· lack of connotations.

Absolute synonyms have no synonymic dominants.

Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Antonyms form binary oppositions, the distinctive feature of which is semantic polarity; its basis is regular co-occurrence in typical contexts combined with approximate sameness of distribution and stylistic and emotional equivalence (love – hate; early – late; known – unknown). Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional coloring or distribution. Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted: high – low, wide – narrow, strong – weak, old – young, friendly – hostile. Verbs take second place, so far as antonymy is concerned. Yet, verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number: to lose – to find, to live – to die, to open – to close, to weep – to laugh. Nouns are not rich in antonyms: friend – enemy, joy – grief, good – evil, heaven – earth, love – hatred. Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into two groups: a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly – coldly, merrily – sadly, loudly – softly; b) adverbs proper: now – then, here – there, ever – never, up – down, in – out.

There are different approaches to the classification of antonyms. Antonyms can be classified into ______________________________________ (love – hate, good – bad, right – wrong, big – little) and ________________________________________________________ (known – unknown, understand – misunderstand, appear – disappear, happiness – unhappiness, logical – illogical, prewar – postwar, useful - useless). The affixes in derivational antonyms serve to deny the quality stated in the stem. There are typical affixes and typical patterns that go into play in forming these derivational antonyms. It is significant that prefixes prevail. The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir- and un-. Other negative prefixes occur in this function only occasionally. As to the suffixes, it should be noted that modern English gives no examples of words, forming their antonyms by adding a negative suffix, such as, for instance, -less. In most cases, even when the language possesses words with the suffix –less, the antonymic pairs found in actual speech are formed with the prefix un-: selfish – unselfish, selfishness – unselfishness, selfishly – unselfishly.

Several features distinguish the two groups of antonyms. In words containing one of the above negative prefixes, the contrast is expressed morphologically as the prefixed variant is in opposition to the unprefixed one. The difference between absolute and derivational antonyms is not only morphological but semantic as well. Thus, we arrive at another classification of antonyms, namely into:

1. Contradictories are mutually opposed and inconsistent notions, denying one another and admitting of no possibility between them (dead – alive, single – married, perfect - imperfect);

2. Contraries admit such possibility (cold – hot, warm – cool). Contrary notions are also inconsistent but in a different way. If some notions can be arranged into a series according to increasing difference in one of their qualities the most distant elements of this series will be classed as contrary notions, e.g. young – old in the series young – middle-aged – old.

Therefore, according to the relationship between the notions expressed, antonyms may be characterized as contradictory (derivational antonyms) or contrary (absolute antonyms). A pair of derivational antonyms forms a privative binary opposition, whereas absolute antonyms are polar members of a gradual opposition, which may have intermediary elements: e.g. beautiful – pretty – good-looking – plain – ugly.

3. Many antonyms are explained by means of the negative particle: clean – not dirty, shallow – not deep. Incompatibles are antonyms with the common component of meaning and relation between them may be described as the relations of exclusion but not of contradiction (red excludes black, blue, yellow).

Not only words but set expressions as well, can be grouped into antonymic pairs: e.g. by accident – on purpose. Antonyms form mostly pairs, not groups like synonyms: above – below, absence – presence, alike – different, asleep – awake. Cases when there are three or more words are reducible to a binary opposition, so that broad and its synonym wide are contrasted to their common antonym narrow.

Another approach to the classification of vocabulary items into lexico-semantic groups is the study of hyponymic relations between words.

By hyponymy is meant _________________________________________________________________________ (vehicle includes car, bus, taxi, etc). These are the relationships between the meaning of the general and the individual terms. The general term is called hyperonym, the individual terms which contain the meaning of the general word in addition to their individual meanings which distinguish them from each other are called hyponyms.

P l a n t

bush t r e e flower

p i n e oak poplar

yellow pine white pine

Other classification of words may be into word families. These are groups __________________________________________________ (lead, leader, leadership). Members of a word family as a rule belong to different parts of speech and are joined together only by the identity of root morphemes.

There are cases when root morphemes are identical in meaning and in sound form, but also cases when sound form of root morphemes may be different (sun, sunny, solar).

Similar groupings according to a common suffix or prefix are also possible (handsome, tiresome, troublesome, gladsome; teacher, worker, reader).

The next step is classifying words not in isolation but taking them within actual utterances. Here the first contrast to consider is the contrast between notional words and form or functional words. Notional words can stand alone and yet have meaning and form a complete utterance. They can name different objects of reality, the qualities of these objects and actions or the process in which they take part. They can also express the attitude of the speaker towards reality. In sentences they function syntactically as some primary or secondary members.

Form words, also called functional words, empty words or auxiliaries, are lexical units, which are called words, although they do not conform to the definition of the word because they are used only in combination with notional words or in reference to them. This group comprises auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and relative adverbs. Primarily they express grammatical relationships between words. This does not, however, imply that they have no lexical meaning of their own.

Words may be also classified according to the alphabetic order, the similarity of their ends, frequency of occurrence, etc.

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