Classification of synonyms

CRITERIA OF SYNONYMS

In contemporary research of synonymy semantic criterion is used. In terms of componential analysis synonyms may by defined as words with the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or in connotative components.

A group of synonyms may be studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis). In this work the data from various dictionaries are analysed comparatively. After that the definitions are subjected to transformational operations (transformational analysis). In this way, the semantic components of each analysed word are singled out.

For example:	Denotation		Connotation
To stare	To look	Steadily, lastingly	in surprise, curiosity
To glare	To look	Steadily, lastingly	In anger, rage, fury
To gaze	To look	Steadily, lastingly	In tenderness, admiration, wonder

The common denotation convincingly shows that, according to the semantic criterion, the words grouped in the above table are synonyms. The connotative component highlight their differentiations.

In modern research on synonyms the criterion of interchangeability is applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.

According to the criterion of interchangeability in context synonyms are classified into total, relative and contextual.

Total synonyms are those members of a synonymic group which can replace each other in any given context, without any slightest alteration in denotative meaning or emotional meaning and connotations. They are very rare. Examples can be found mostly in special literature among technical terms and the like: fatherland-motherland; suslik-gopher; noun-substantive; functional affix-inflexion; scarlet fever - scarlatina.

Relative synonyms are those which denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of meanings and can be substituted only in some contexts. E.g.: ask-beg-implore; like-love-adore; gift-talent-genius; famous-celebrate-eminent.

Contextual or context-dependent synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. It may happen that the difference between the meanings of two words is contextually neutralized, e.g. to buy and to get would not generally taken as synonyms, but in the following examples they are synonyms: We‘ll go to the baker’s and get (buy) some bread.

A more modern and more effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations.

It seems convenient to classify connotations by which synonyms differ rather than synonyms themselves. It opens possibilities for tracing much subtler distinctive features within their semantic structure.

1. The connotation of degree of intensity c an be traced in such groups of synonyms as:

To surprise-to astonish- to amaze- to astound;

To satisfy- to please-to content- to gratify- to delight- exalt;

To shout- to yell-to bellow-to roar;

To like-to admire- to love-to adore- to worship.

Some words have two and more connotative components in their semantic structure. In the above list the synonymic groups headed by to satisfy and to like contain words which can be different not only in connotation of intensity but also by the connotation of manner. Each of them describes the feeling of a different type, and not only of different intensity.

2. The connotation of duration. In the group of synonyms to stare-to glare-to gaze-to peep-to peer all the synonyms except to glance denote a lasting act of looking at somebody or something, whereas to glance describes a brief, passing look. These synonyms may be said to have a connotation of duration in their semantic structure.

3. Emovive connotation. In the group alone-single-lonely- solitary the adjective lonely has an emotive connotation. E.g.: She was alone implies simply the absence of company; but She was lonely stresses the melancholy and desolation resulting from being alone. A single tree on the plain states that there is only one tree on the plain not two or more, but a lonely tree gives the same information but also creates an emotionally coloured picture.

4. Evaluative connotation c onveys the speaker’s attitude towards the referent, labeling it as good or bad. So in the group well-known-famous- notorious- celebrated, the adjective notorious bears a negative evaluative connotation and celebrated a positive one. In the group to produce- to create- to manufacture- to fabricate, the verb to create possesses the characteristics of the process of creation as noble and inspired. So, it may be said to have a positive evaluative connotation while to manufacture which possesses the meaning of “to produce mechanically without creativity or imagination ” has a negative evaluative connotation.

5. Causative connotation can be illustrated by the example to sparkle and to glitter. One’s eyes sparkle with positive emotions and glitter with negative emotions. The causative connotation is also typical of the verbs to shiver and to shudder. In their semantic structures the process of trembling is encoded as “to tremble with fever, cold, because of the frost” and “to tremble with fear, disgust, anger, horror”.

6. The connotation of manner can be singled out in some groups of verbal synonyms. The verbs to stroll - to stride- to trot - to pace - to swagger - to stagger - to stumble all denote different ways and types of walking, encoding in their semantic structure the length of pace, tempo, gait and carriage, purposefulness or lack of purpose.

7. Connotation of attendant features. To peer is characteristic of looking at something or somebody thoroughly as to peer through fog; to peer through dimmed windows; to peer from a big distance. So, in the semantic structure of to peer are encoded circumstances preventing one from seeing clearly.

Stylistic connotations are subjected to further classification, namely: colloquial, slang, dialect, learned, poetic, terminological, archaic.

Meal: snack, bite (col.); snap (dial); repast, refreshment, feast (formal). These synonyms, apart from stylistic connotations, have connotations of attendant features. Snack, bite, snap denote a frugal meal taken in a hurry, refreshment is also a light meal; feast means a rich or abundant meal.

Girl: girlie (col.); lass, lassie (dial.); bird, birdie, jane, fluff, skirt (sl.); maiden (poet.); damsel (arch.).

Ukrainian: Думати: роздумувати, гадати, мислити (col.), помишляти, міркувати, метикувати (col.), мізкувати, розумувати (col.), кумекати (col.), микитити (col.).

According to whether the difference is in denotational or connotational component synonyms are classified into ideographic and stylistic.

Ideographic synonyms denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. They are nearly identical in one or more denotational meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts, e.g.: beautiful-fine-handsome-pretty. Beautiful conveys the strongest meaning; it marks the possession of that quality in its fullest extent, while the other terms denote the possession of it in part only. Fineness, handsomeness, prettiness are to beauty as parts to a whole.

In the synonymic group choose, select, opt, elect, pick the word choose has the most general meaning, the others are characterized by differences clearly statable:

Select implies a wide choice of possibilities;

opt implies an alternative;

pick often implies collecting and keeping for future use;

elect implies choosing by vote.

Compare the synonymic groups:

blaze (to burn fiercely), flame (to burn or cause to burn brightly),

flare (to burn or cause to burn with an unsteady or sudden bright flame),

glow (to emit a steady even light without flames

all these words express a different intensity and stages of the process of burning. Synonymic groups of adjectives are very numerous in both languages.

The Ukrainian language has a rich potential in creating stylistic synonyms as it contains a large number of diminutive and coarse suffixes which are very productive in creating ideographic and stylistic-ideographic synonyms of neutral words which belong to different parts of speech: хвилиночка, спатоньки, дівчинонька, солоденький.

Comparative analysis of synonymic groups in the English and Ukrainian languages states that in Ukrainian one can find a great number of stylistic-ideographic (non-derivational) synonyms which give a detailed description of quality, action, process etc. But they have stylistic restrictions in usage (colloquial speech only). Let’s consider a group of synonyms each member of which is a borrowing from Latin and is stylistically neutral or belongs to bookish or official layer:

Think – brood (ponder morbidly or persistently), celebrate (to use the mind, think, ponder, consider), cogitate (to think deeply about a problem, possibility etc.), consider (to think carefully about something), contemplate (to think about intently and at length especially for spiritual reasons), deliberate (to consider something deeply), meditate (to think about something deeply), muse (to reflect or ponder on, usually in silence), ponder (to give thorough or deep consideration to).

A corresponding group of synonyms in the Ukrainian includes more words which are oh colloquial or ironic character:

думати, роздумувати, гадати, мислити, метикувати, міркувати, аналізувати, помишляти, мізкувати, кумекати, микитити.

In many cases a stylistic synonym has an element of elevation in its meaning, e.g.: face-visage; girl-maiden. Along with elevation of meaning there is a reverse process of degradation: to begin-to fire away; to eat-to devoir; to steal-to pinch.

Pictorial language always uses poetic words, archaisms as stylistic alternatives of neutral words: maid for girl; bliss for happiness; steed for horse; quit for leave

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