Metaphor and Metonymy as a nature of semantic change

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Development and change of meaning

Most scholars distinguish between the terms development of meaning and change of meaning.

By development of meaning we mean a process when a new meaning and the one on the basis of which it was formed both exist in the semantic structure of the word. The examples are train (new meaning «поезд» and old meaning «цепь» both exist); carriage (new meaning «вагон» and old meaning «экипаж» both exist).

By change of meaning we mean a process when the old meaning is completely replaced by the new one as it happened to the word tide (see above).

The process of development of new meaning (or a change of meaning) is traditionally termed transference. Some scholars mistakenly use the term “transference of meaning ” which is wrong. It’s very important to stress that in any case of semantic change it is not the meaning but the word as a name of the object that is being transferred from one referent (object or phenomenon) onto another (e.g. from goose pen onto any other pen).

Depending on the two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process two types of transference are distinguished: transference based on resemblance (metaphor) and transference based on contiguity (metonymy).

Metaphor – transference based on resemblance (similarity)

Transference of the word as a name from one object onto another on the basis of similarity of certain features (signs) characteristic of both objects is called metaphor.

Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of resemblance:

1. similarity of shape. E.g. head of a cabbage, bottleneck, eye of a needle, teeth of a saw, teeth of a comb; sl. nut, onion (for head), saucers (for eyes), rails (for legs). Compare also Russian тыковка in the meaning of “голова”

2. similarity of position. E.g. foot of a page, foot of a mountain, head of a procession.

3. similarity of function, behavior. E.g. bookworm, film star, whip (an official in the British parliament whose duty is to monitor the presence of parliament members at the voting).

4. similarity of colour. E.g. orange, hazel, chestnut, sl. carrot (for red-headed boy).

In some cases we have a complex similarity. E.g. the leg of a table has a similarity to a human leg in its shape, position and function. Many metaphors are based on parts of human body. E.g. arms and mouth of a river, head of an army, minute hand of a watch.

A special type of metaphor is when proper names become common nouns. E.g. vandals (destructive people), a Don Juan (a lover of many women), quisling (the traitor), a Scrooge (a mean, miserly person).

Metonymy – transference based on contiguity

Metonymical associations are based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with difficulty. E.g. The kettle is boiling – means that the water in the kettle is boiling; The White House is in a panic – means that people in the White House are in a panic.

The nature of metonymical associations may be different:

1. the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass (from glass), an iron (from iron), a nickel (a coin of 5 cent).

2. names of inventors and their work: browning (by the name of its inventor Browning); Ohm, Watt.

3. the names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an orchestra: the violin, the saxophone, the piano.

4. some geographical names became common nouns through metonymy: Holland (made in Holland), china (made in China), Madeira (was firstly made on Madeira).

5. The name of a painter or writer is frequently transferred onto one of its pictures, works: a Matisse = a painting by Matisse; I like to read Shakespeare (plays of Shakespeare).

A word as a name of the whole can be transferred onto the part, or the name of the part can be transferred onto the whole. Such transference is called synecdoche and is related as subtype of metonymy. E.g. the word hand serves to denote also a man who works with his hands (a worker). Compare also Russian: Нам очень нужны рабочие руки. The name of the beast is transferred on its fur: fox (лиса, лисий мех), squirrel (белка, беличий мех).

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