Transference Based on Resemblance. Metaphor

Metaphor is the transfer of name based on the association of similarity. It is the application of a name or a descriptive term to an object to which it is not literally applicable, e.g. head of an army, eye of a needle.

This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity. Box and stall are examples of this type of transference.

Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the association of two physical objects. The noun eye, for instance, has for one of its meanings “hole in the end of a needle” (cf. with the R. ушко иголки), which also developed through transference based on resemblance. A similar case is represented by the neck of a bottle.

The noun drop (mostly in the plural form) has, in addition to its main meaning “a small particle of water or other liquid”, the meanings: “ear-rings shaped as drops of water” (e. g. diamond drops) and “candy of the same shape” (e. g. mint drops). It is quite obvious that both these meanings are also based on resemblance. In the compound word snowdrop the meaning of the second constituent underwent the same shift of meaning (also, in bluebell). In general, metaphorical change of meaning is often observed in idiomatic compounds.

The main meaning of the noun branch is “limb or subdivision of a tree or bush”. On the basis of this meaning it developed several more. One of them is “a special field of science or art” (as in a branch of linguistics). This meaning brings us into the sphere of the abstract, and shows that in transference based on resemblance an association may be built not only between two physical objects, but also between a concrete object and an abstract concept.

The noun bar from the original meaning barrier developed a figurative meaning realised in such contexts as social bars, colour bar, racial bar. Here, again, as in the abstract meaning of branch, a concrete object is associated with an abstract concept.

The noun star on the basis of the meaning “heavenly body” developed the meaning “famous actor or actress”. Nowadays the meaning has considerably widened its range, and the word is applied not only to screen idols (as it was at first), but, also, to popular sportsmen (e. g. football, stars), pop-singers, etc. Of course, the first use of the word star to denote a popular actor must have been humorous or ironical: the mental picture created by the use of the word in this new meaning was a kind of semi-god surrounded by the bright rays of his glory. Yet, very soon the ironical colouring was lost, and, furthermore the association with the original meaning considerably weakened and is gradually erased.

The meanings formed through this type of transference are frequently found in the informal strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang. A red-headed boy is almost certain to be nicknamed carrot or ginger by his schoolmates, and the one who is given to spying and sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat. Both these meanings are metaphorical, though, of course, the children using them are quite unconscious of this fact.

The slang meanings of words such as nut, onion (= head), saucers (= eyes), hoofs (= feet) and very many others were all formed by transference based on resemblance.

The transfer of name based on the association of similarity are often similar in Ukrainian and in English. Cf. head; cold:

Do you see the picture behind me on the wall above my head? (Burgess).

He spoke many languages, and was a personal friend of many heads of state (Vonnegut).

The window was open an inch or two, so she could get the fresh cold air (Sandford)

His tone was unmistakably cold and sarcastic (Fowles).

“Now I go to my other wife, the cold, heartless one that owns my soul.” Ramius paused. The smile vanished. “My only wife, now.” (Clancy).

UA. голова людини → голова зборів, голова правління;

холодний чай → холодний погляд;

The transfer of name based on the association of similarity of nouns has the pattern animal → human being:

English	Ukrainian
fox- a cunning or crafty person. sheep - a meek, unimaginative, or easily led person. dog- an ugly, boring, or crude person.	лис- хитрун, лукавець. вівця- покірна, ляклива людина. пес- погана, негідна людина, посіпака, вислуга.

Verbs denoting animal cries are used metaphorically with reference to human beings:

bark − (of a dog or other animal) 1. to utter an abrupt, explosive cry

2. to speak or cry out sharply or gruffly: a man who barks at his children (UA гавкати)

He reached for the ignition, then stopped and issued several hard barks of laughter: “Ha! Ha! Ha! Ha!” (King).

cackle - 1. to utter a shrill, broken sound or cry, as of a hen.

2. to chatter noisily; prattle, (UA кудкудакати)

He would cackle with laughter and caper, if any jest was made, or even if Frodo spoke kindly to him, and weep if Frodo rebuked him. (Tolkien).

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