Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII centuries)

External means of enriching vocabulary

Internal means of enriching vocabulary

New English

Native borrowed

Native borrowed

fatherly paternal

— from the Common Germanic:

native	borrowed
yard	garden
ward	guard
choose	choice
— from	Latin:
earlier(Old English) borrowing	later(Middle English) borrowing
mint	money
inch	ounce

6. Due to the great number of French borrowings there appeared in the English language such families of words, which though similar in their root meaning, are different in origin:

mouth oral

sun solar

see vision

7. There are calques (осуществлять структурное иноязычное заимствование) on the French phrase:

It's no doubt - Se n'est pas doute

Without doubt- Sans doute

Out of doubt - Hors de doute.

The language in New English is growing very rapidly, the amount of actually existing words being impossible to estimate. Both internal means and external means are used for the purpose of enriching the vocabulary, and the importance of either of them is hard to evaluate.

The principal inner means in New English is the appearance of new words formed by means of conversion. Usually new words are formed by acquiring a new paradigm and function within a sentence. Thus, book (a noun) has the paradigm book — books. Book (a verb) has the paradigm book — books — booked — booking, etc. (The book is on the table - He booked a room.) Similarly:

stone (n) — stone (v) — stone (adj) (as in "a stone bench"), etc.

Very many new words appear in New English due to borrowing. It is necessary to say here that the process of borrowing, the sources of loan words, the nature of the new words is different from Middle English and their appearance in the language cannot be understood unless sociolinguistic factors are taken into consideration.

Chronologically speaking, New English borrowings may be subdivided into borrowings of the Early New English period — XV—XVII centuries, the period preceeding the establishment of the literary norm, and loan words which entered the language after the establishment of the literary norm — in the XVIII—XX centuries, the period which is generally alluded to as late New English.

Borrowings into the English language in the XV—XVII centuries are primarily due to political events and also to the cultural and trade relations between the English people and peoples in other countries. Thus, in the XV century — the epoch of Renaissance, there appeared in the English language many words borrowed from the Italian tongue: ca meo, archipelago [ɑːkɪ'peləgəu], dilettante [dɪlə'tæntɪ], fresco, violin, balcony, gondola, grotto ['grɔtəu], volcano; in the XVI century — Spanish and Portuguese words, such as: armada, negro, tornado, mosquito, renegade ['renɪgeɪd], matador and also Latin (the language of culture of the time), for instance:

— verbs, with the characteristic endings -ate, -ute:

aggravate ухудшать, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate, separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute, prosecute, execute, etc.,

— adjectives ending in -ant, -ent, -ior, -al:

arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior, inferior, senior, junior.

As a result of numerous Latin borrowings at the time there appeared many ethymological doublets:

Latin

strictum - (direct) strict; strait пролив (through French)

seniorem - senior sir

defectum - defect defeat

In the XVII century due to relations with the peoples of America such words were borrowed as:

ca noe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco, cannibal, squaw, mo ccasin, wigwam, etc.

French borrowings — after the Restoration:

ball, ballet, ca pri ce, co que tte, intrigue, fatigue, naive.

—Late New English borrowings (XYIII—XX centuries)

— German:

kindergarten, waltz, wagon, boy, girl

— French:

magazine, machine, garage, police, engine

— Indian:

bungalow, jungle, indigo

— Chinese:

coolie, tea

— Arabic:

caravan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, baz aa r, orange, cotton, candy, chess

— Australian:

kangaroo, boo merang

— Russian:

Before the October Revolution the borrowings from the Russian language were mainly words reflecting Russian realia of the time:

borzoi, samovar, tsar, taiga, etc.

After the Revolution there entered the English language such words that testified to the political role of this country in the world, as:

Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz.

Cultural and technical achievements are reflected in such borrowings as:

sputnik, Iunokhod, synchrophasotron

and recently such political terms as:

glasnost, perestroika.

In New English there also appeared words formed on the basis of Greek and Latin vocabulary. They are mainly scientific or technical terms, such as:

telephone, telegraph, teletype, telefax, microphone, sociology, electricity, etc.

General survey of grammar changes in Middle and New English

The grammar system of the language in the Middle and New English periods underwent radical changes. The principal means of expressing grammatical relations in Old English were the following:

— suffixation

— vowel interchange

— use of suppletive forms,

all these means being synthetic.

In Middle English and New English many grammatical notions formerly expressed synthetically either disappeared from the grammar system of the language or came to be expressed by analytical means. There developed the use of analytical forms consisting of a form word and a notional word, and also word order, special use of prepositions, etc. — analytical means.

In Middle English and New English we observe the process of the gradual loss of declension by many parts of speech, formerly declined. Thus in Middle English there remained only three declinable parts of speech: the noun, the pronoun and the adjective, against five existing in Old English (the above plus the infinitive and the participle). In New English the noun and the pronoun (mainly personal) are the only parts of speech that are declined.

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