Figures of identity

Satire - An expression or literary work that seeks to expose folly and wickedness, often by means of irony and sarcasm, is satirical.

Irony - This term was defined at the beginning of this section.

Wit - This term implies mental keenness, the talent for making an effective comment on them.

An Irony, dissembling with an air,

Thinks otherwise than what the words declare.

Armed with these definitions of irony, we can next examine the many shades of meaning that encompass this term. The shades of meaning might be clearer if you can imagine a continuum, a horizontal line on which to plot them. Moving from left to right along the continuum, we move from the most gentle forms of irony to the nastiest.

WIT / IRONY / SATIRE / CYNICISM / SARCASM / SARDONICISM

E.g.: Oscar Wilde, the Irish dramatist, once defined eternity as two people and a ham.

Cynicism - Cynicism is characterised by scorn for the motives and virtues of others; the belief that people are motivated by selfishness. The cynical tone is mock­ing and sneering, often bitter; it may or may not involve irony.

E.g.: When a rich man donates money to a charity, cynics say that his motive is to get a charitable deduction on his tax return.

Sarcasm - This refers to an expression or attitude that is sharply mocking or con­temptuous, typically utilising statements or implications pointedly opposite or irrelevant to the underlying purport. Sarcasm suggests open taunting and ridicule; though it uses irony, its effect is considerably harsher, reveal­ing an intention to hurt.

Sardonicism - This term can describe both content and manner of expression and is associated with scorn, derision, mockery, and cynicism. It is closely associ­ated with sarcasm.

Functions and stylistic effects

- to show the author’s attitude to / evaluation of something

- to convey a negative meaning

- to produce a humorous effect

They are realised in the context on the basis of semantic affinity of different units within the frames of the given context. The speaker combines within an utterance or text the units whose meaning he/she considers similar.

Simile is a partial identification of two objects belonging to different classes or spheres. It is an expressive comparison of two objects which have common features.

E.g. The ugly one, Laverne, wasn't too bad a dancer, but the other one, old Marty, was like dragging the Statue of Liberty around the floor. (J. Salinger)

The object, which is compared, is called the tenor; the one, which it is compared to, is the vehicle. And the feature of similarity between two objects is the foundation.

Structural means of comparison:

1. Conjunctions: as / like

2. Adverbial clauses of comparison: He looked at Sibil as a mouse might look at a cat.

3. Adjectives in the comparative degree: Roy behaved worse than a cut-throat.

4. Adverbial word-combinations containing prepositional attributes: With the quickness of a cat, Samuel climbed up the tree.

Implied simile - formal markers are missing, but the relations between two objects are similar, we have implied simile, where notional or seminotional words (nouns, verbs) substitute the formal markers: to remind, to seem, resemblance.

E.g. He reminded James, as he said afterwards, of a hungry cat. (J. Galsworthy)

The difference between simile and metaphor

Simile mustn’t be confused with metaphor as both are based on comparison of similar objects. They differ structurally and semantically.

Structurally simile consists of two components - the subject of comparison and the object united by formal elements, connective words: as, as... as, like, as though, as if, etc.

E.g. His praises went trampling over the delicate little play like a herd of elephants. (A. Huxley)

Semantically metaphor aims at identifying the objects; simile aims at finding some points of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. Metaphor only implies the feature which serves as the ground for comparison, simile often indicates this feature, it is semantically more definite.

E.g.: You couldn’t stop him. He was hot as a fire-cracker. (J. Salinger)

The difference between simile and logical comparison

Simile should also be distinguished from logical comparison.

Logical comparison deals with the notions belonging to the same class / sphere and states the degree of their similarity and difference. E.g.: The boy is as clever as his dad.

Simile combines the notions belonging to different classes. To use a simile is to characterise an object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things (heterogeneous classes of objects).

The steps drifted over with windblown sand and handrail was as cold and wet as a toad’s belly. (R. Chandler)

Comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects. E.g. He is like a lion.

Simile excludes all the features of the two objects except one, which is made common to them.

E.g. He’s as brave as a lion.

Typology

Semantically

Many similes have become trite: As vain as a peacock. As sly as a fox

Genuine similes are striking and original.

E.g. His voice got as cool as a cafeteria dinner. (R. Chandler)

Structurally simile may be:

1. simple:

The sound of a faraway train, like a big beast shuffling in its sleep. (K. Mansfield)

2. extended:

Montermar Vista was a few dozen houses of various sizes and shapes hanging by their teeth and eyebrows to a spur of mountain and looking as if a good sneeze would drop them down among the box lunches on the beach. (R. Chandler)

Functions and stylistic effects

- to emphasise a partial identity of two objects

- to give new characteristics to the referent

- to deepen our knowledge of the object described

- to create imagery

Synonyms-substitutes / substituting synonyms – a thing or phenomenon already mentioned, supplementing new additional details or giving a new aspect to the characterisation of an object.

E.g. He brought home numberless prizes. He told his mother countless stories.

Some paired synonyms have become fixed in the language-as-a-system as clichés: lord and master; really and truly.

Пропало, пройшло, пролетіло,

Минулося, щезло, спливло,

Лишень головешками тліло,

Лишень попелищем цвіло.

Одвіялось, сном одіснилос ь,

Одмарилось - ген набулось,

Вкотилось і ген одкотилос ь,

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