B) Transference based on contiguity

A) Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)

This type of transference is also referred to as _______________________________. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity.

In other words metaphor is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of ________. Metaphor can be based on different types of similarity: a) similarity of shape, e.g._____________________________________________; b) similarity of position, e.g. ___________________________________________; c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g.___________________________________; d) similarity of colour, e.g. ____________________________________________. In some cases we have a complex similarity. Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body, e.g. ________________________________________________________. A special type of metaphors comprises transitions of proper names into common use. This process is called antonomasia, e.g.: an Adonis (a very handsome young man), a Cicero, a Don Juan, a Don Quixote, an Einstein, a Vandal etc. Names of animals are often used metaphorically to denote ___________________. This is zoosemy. Zoosemy needs no explanation when people are nicknamed cock, lion, parrot, a monkey, hen, sheep, snake, duck, viper, wolf, a pig.

One should distinguish ____________ and __________ metaphors. ______ metaphors are not felt any longer. The verb to ponder was borrowed from Latin in the meaning of ‘to weigh ’. Later on it began to be used metaphorically in the meaning ‘to consider smth. ’ At present it is used only in this meaning as a synonym to verbs to think, to meditate. So it’s an example of a __________ metaphor.

Closely related to metaphor is simile. Metaphor is an implied comparison made by directly calling one thing another. Simile is a direct comparison, linking words (like and as) are used to compare two objects, e.g.: She is a rose. (_______________). She is like a rose. (_____________)

Another term for this type of transference is ______________________________. There are different types of metonymy: a) the material an object is made of may become the name of the object, e.g. _____________________________________________________________________________;b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. _______________________________________________________________;c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. ________________________________________________________________________; d) the name of some person may become a common noun _____________________e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented________________________________________________________________f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g._________________________________________________________________

Let us consider some examples of transference based on contiguity: foot, arms, China.

3. Results of semantic change Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the changes of denotational meaning of the word or in alteration of its connotational meaning. a) Changes in denotational meaningSpecialization

It is a gradual process when a word ______________________________________

________________________________________________________________________e.g. „ case” has a general meaning „circumstances in which a person or a thing is”. It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context.

Thus it is a semantic process in which the word range is ______________, the usage of the word is ________________, the word becomes _____________________. Generalization (extension) It means ______________________ of word range....

Sometimes, the process of сhange of meaning may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English in the narrow meaning "to come to shore, to land". In Modern English it has greatly widened its combinability and developed the general meaning "to come".

Generalisation is a process contrary to ______________________, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more ___________________ in the course of time. The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. „ ready ” (a derivative from the verb „ridan” - „ride”) meant „ prepared for a ride ”, now its meaning is „prepared for anything”.

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