Compounding (or composition)

B. Prefixes

The classification of prefixes in any language offers more difficulties than we have in classifying suffixes. The semantic motivation of many prefixes is not quite apparent. A large number of prefixes are polysemantic.

1) From the etymological point of view, prefixes can be subdivided into native and foreign prefixes. Native (or Germanic) prefixes are: un-, out-, mis-, over-, under-, up-, with-, be-, fore- (un happy, out live, mis understand, over eat, under eat, up side, with draw, be hind, fore tell). Foreign prefixes are: a-, anti-, arch-, bi-, circum-, cis-, со-,contra-, counter-, de-, demi-, dis-, en-, epi-, ex-, extra-, hemi-, hyper-, in-, inter-, intro-, mal-, meso-, meta-, mono-, поп-, pan-, pantro-, para-, peri-, poly-, post-, pre-, pro-, proto-, re-, retro-, semi-, sub-, super-, sur-, syn-, trans-, tri-, ultra-, uni-, vice- (a bed, ante chamber, arc hangel, bi annual, circum scribe). Some of them are borrowed from Greek (anti-, pro-, re-, de-) and some from Latin or French (counter-, sub-, ex-, pre-).

2) Prefixes differ in their valency. Some of them can combine with the stems of only one part of speech, others can combine with the stems of two or more parts of speech, i.e. they are more productive in their functional use. The prefixes ex-, arch-, ana-, dys-, per-, for instance, are used only with the stems of nouns (ex- chancellor, arc hangel, ana branch, dys function, per spective); the prefixes be-, de-, en-, out- can combine only with verbs (be fall, de clutch, en large, out go – опережать); such prefixes as со-, contra-, counter-, dis-, intra-, mis-, post-, pre-, sub-, trans-, over-, under, are used with the stems of verbs, nouns and adjectives. For instance: со-: co ordinate (v), co ordination (n), co operative (adj); contra-: contra vene (v), contra vention (нарушение закона) (n); dis-: dis arm (v), dis armament (n), dis arming (adj) etc.

3) From the semantic point of view prefixes can be divided into the following groups of prefixes implying:

a) priority: ex-, fore-, pre- (ex -minister, fore thought, pre dawn);

b) negation: in-, un-, dis-, поп-, a- (in apt, un kind, dis quiet, non -stop, a moral);

c) counteraction, opposition: counter-, contra-, anti- (counter blow, contra bass, anti pole);

d) locality: a-, en-, sub-, supra-, sur-, trans-, hypo-, circum-, epi-, under- (a bed, en cage, sub lunагу, supra dental, sur coat, trans oceanic, hypo dermic, circum locution, epi centre, under sea);

e) reversion: de-, dis-, un- (de form, dis continue, uns tick);

f) incompleteness: demi-, hemi-, dys- (demi official, hemi sphere, dys function).

Compounding is the type of word-building in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms. Compounding is not only one of the most ancient ways of enriching the word-stock but it is also one of the three most productive types of word-building in Modern English. The other two are affixation and conversion.

Compound words represent one of the most typical and specific features of English word-structure. Compounds are not always easy to distinguish from free word-combinations. In Modern English linguists find it difficult to give criteria of distinguishing between a compound and a word-group. It is still a question of hot dispute.

Let’s compare a compound „a tallboy” and a word-group „a tall boy”. The following criteria may be offered. In this case the graphic criterion seems to be sufficient (yet in many cases it cannot be wholly relied on). So, a compound is characterized by one word (or hyphenated) spelling. In a word-group each word is written separately. In this case semantic criterion seems more reliable, for it points to the highest degree of semantic cohesion in the compound word: tallboy does not denote a person, but a piece of furniture. Moreover, the word-group a tall boy conveys two concepts, whereas the word tallboy expresses one concept. (Yet the semantic criterion alone cannot prove anything). The phonetic criterion for compounds may be treated as that of a single stress.

So, a compound „tallboy” is characterized by one stress. In a word-group „a tall boy” each element is stressed. (Yet this criterion does not work with compound adjectives: blue-eyed).

Morphological and syntactic criteria can also be applied to compounds in order to distinguish them from word-groups. In the word-group each of the constituents is independently open to grammatical changes, e.g. „They were the tallest boys in the form”. Between the constituents other words can be inserted: a tall handsome boy. The compound tallboy and, in fact, any other compound, is not subject to such changes. The first component is grammatically invariable; the plural form ending is added to the whole unit: tallboys. No word can be inserted between the components.

Therefore, in most cases, only several criteria (graphic, phonetic, semantic, morphological, syntactic) can convincingly classify a lexical unit as either a compound word or a word-group.

So, compounds are characterized by: a) one word or hyphenated spelling; b) one stress; c) semantic integrity; d) structural-syntactic unity.

Compounds may be classified proceeding from different criteria:

a) according to the parts of speech to which they belong;

b) according to the means of composition used to link their IC-s;

c) according to their semantic characteristics.

1. As parts of speech, compound words fall into 6 groups:

1) nouns (e.g. blueprint, eyelash, highball, joyride, lily-of-the-valley);

2) pronouns (e.g. everybody, somebody, nobody, whoever, whosesoever);

3) adjectives (e.g. two-fold, heavy-duty, cock-sure, snow-white, heart-breaking);

3) verbs (e.g. overdo – заходить слишком далеко, underestimate, out-stay, side-

step – уступить дорогу);

4) adverbs (e.g. posthaste, alongside, however, nevertheless, whenever, wherein).

5) prepositions (e.g. into, onto, unto, upon);

6) conjunctions (e.g. wherever, whereas, whenever, nevertheless, whereupon).

Most compounds in English belong to nouns and adjectives. Compound verbs are less frequent. Compound adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions and prepositions are rather rare.

2. The classification of compounds according to the means of joining their IC-s together distinguishes between the following structural types:

1 ) Juxtapositional or neutral compounds whose IC-s are merely placed one after another, e.g.: classroom, heartache, bigwig (важная персона), scarecrow (огородное пугало), rainbow; level-headed (уравновешенный), absent-minded, blue-eyed, broad-shouldered, chicken-hearted (трусливый); TV-set, H-bomb, T-shirt, H-bag, V-day. This structural type is subdivided into 3 subtypes: a) simple neutral compounds (e.g. heartache, bluebell); b) derivational compounds (e.g. absent-minded, hot-headed); c) contracted compounds (e.g. V-day, T-shirt).

Therefore, in neutral compounds the process of compounding is realized without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems. It is, in fact, syntactico- morphological way of word-building in Modern English.

2) Morphological compounds whose IC-s are joined together with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element, e.g. Anglo-Saxon, Franco-Prussian, gasometer, electromotive, handicraft, statesman, spokesman (представитель, делегат), herdsman (пастух), bridesman, bridesmaid (подружка невесты), crowsfeet (морщины), sportsman, saleswoman etc.

This type belongs to morphological way of word-building in Modern English.

3) Syntactic compounds which are the result of the process of semantic isolation and structural integration of free word-groups, i.e. these words are formed from segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs, etc. E.g.: forget-me-not, lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, man-of-war (военный корабль), pick-me-up, milk-and-water (безвкусный; безвольный), tongue-in-cheek (неискренний), mums-to-be, hit-or-miss (случайный, сделанный кое-как), stay-at-home, know-all, know-nothing, passer-by, son-in-law, cool-to-the-touch, melt-in-the-mouth, etc. This type belongs to syntactical way of word-building in English.

It should be mentioned that not all the structural types of compounds are equally productive. The morphological compounds are the least productive while the syntactic compounds are more active and the juxtapositional compounds seem to be most productive of all. The morphological compounding is more typical of the Russian and Ukrainian languages. Compare: Rus. паровоз, теплоход, землемер, сталевар, бронепоезд, землепашец, тепловоз, пароход, электромобиль; Ukr. водолікарня, пароплав, книгодрук, основоскладання, лісотундра, першодрук, саморух, сонцепоклонник, птахолов, однодумець.

3. From the semantic point of view all compounds fall into two groups of unequal size: idiomatic and non-idiomatic. The meaning of non-idiomatic compounds is easily understood from the meanings of their IC-s, e.g. bedroom, dining-room, bookshelf, raincoat, blood-pressure, plum-pudding, apple-tree, sunlight, dancing-hall, sleeping-car, evening-gown. Non-idiomatic compounds are numerous in Modern English. Idiomatic compounds are those in which the meaning of the unit cannot be understood from the meaning of its IC-s, i.e. the key to the meaning of a compound seems to have been irretrievably (невосполнимо, непоправимо) lost, e.g. buttercup (лютик), chatter-box (болтун), ladybird (божья коровка), tallboy (комод), bluebottle (1-василёк, 2-муха трупная), bluestocking (учёная женщина), fuss-pot (человек, волнующийся из-за пустяков), greenhorn (незнайка), pickpocket (вор-карманник), lady-killer (сердцеед, ловелас), lazybones, killjoy (человек, который умеет испортить всем настроение), wildcat (вспыльчивый человек). Idiomatic compounds are not numerous in Modern English.

There are also many borderline cases.

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