Collectivistic versus Individualistic Cultures

Values

Values are what people who share a culture regard strongly as good or bad. Values have an evaluative component. They often concern desired goals, such as the Christian value of salvation, or the values of mature love, world peace, or preservation of the environment. Values also concern ways of behaving that lead to these goals, such as valuing thrift, honesty, cleanliness, or speaking and acting quietly so as not to make noise that disturbs other people.

Values are the learned (through acculturation) organization of rules for making choices and resolving conflicts, and differences in values can be an obstacle to intercultural communication. There is much debate over relative and absolute values. Values regarding money, work, and suc­cess are often based in religion. Religious values are manifested not only in dogma, but also in living patterns and outlook. Material welfare also af­fects intercultural communication.

In France, who you are is more important than what you have achieved, and what a person does is therefore none of your business. In contrast, in the United States and Australia, for example, what you have achieved—that is, demonstrated—is important.

The most difficult thing for North Americans to understand in French culture may be the different ways in which the French affirm personal bonds or adherence to a group. Social debts situate a person in a network in France; financial debts do not—money is not part of the relational system. It is said that the French will discuss everything about sex and nothing about money. A North American who borrows a car will usually return it with more gas than when he borrowed it and will feel responsible for repairing any damage, because in North American culture consideration for a per­son's car symbolizes consideration for the person. But in France, if a car is very important, then it is the owner's responsibility not to lend it. "Things happen" and it is incumbent on the owner to safeguard and not to lend something valuable.

A North American woman who lived for years in Iran recounted that on hot summer nights people put out chairs and mats on the rooftops of their homes to sit and to sleep. Every morning people would take everything back inside, because otherwise neighbors would fish for items with poles and take them. It was accepted that people should not "abandon" property in plain sight, thereby tempting their neighbors. It was the owner's responsibility to protect a valued possession by properly putting it away.

The elements of a culture, like its values, are so completely accepted by individuals sharing that culture that these elements are seldom questioned or defended.

Cultural values involve judgments (that is, they specify what is good or bad) and are normative (that is, they state or imply what should be). Most people in the United States feel that bullfighting is disgusting and cruel. But to many Mexicans and Spaniards, bullfighting is an important and exciting sport. Similarly, most people in the United States place a negative value on nepotism (hiring or favoring a relative) and on bribery. In other nations, these activities are valued positively and are widely practiced. In some cul­tures, the chief financial officer of a company is often the brother or at least a close relative of the company president, who thinks that this relative can be trusted with the company's money.

Many attitudes are based on cultural values. In the United States, freedom is a dominant value. In others, it is just one value among others. The meaning of any value, including freedom, differs across cultures. An old woman in Saigon told one of the authors that she felt that she could not tolerate the lack of freedom in the United States. In Vietnam she was free to sell her veg­etables on the sidewalk without being hassled by police or city authorities. She did not have to get a permit to fix the roof on her house. She had the free­dom to vote for a communist candidate if she wanted to. She believed that in the United States, where her children lived, people were expected to tell oth­ers what they thought. In Vietnam she had the freedom to remain silent. Her perceptions determined her behavior; she refused to immigrate to the United States to join her children.

As for the categorizing cultures, scientists define several types.

We define a collectivistic culture as one in which the collectivity's goals are valued over those of the individual. In contrast, an individualistic culture is one in which the individual's goals are valued over those of the collectivity. Individualism-collectivism is perhaps the most important dimension of cultural differences in behavior across the cultures of the world.

Japanese culture is an example of a collectivistic culture. Harmony (wa) is very important to the Japanese. The collectivistic nature of Japanese culture is evident when observing a typical business office in Tokyo. More than a dozen employees are packed into an office that in the United States might house two or three individuals. The Japanese workers sit at small desks, facing each other, clustered in the middle of the room. Their boss sits among them. Individual privacy is completely lacking; instead, much informal conversation occurs among the office workers as they help each other with various work-related tasks.

When the 5:00 pm bell rings, signaling the end of the workday, no one gets up to leave. Neckties are loosened and jackets are shed, and the office situa­tion becomes more relaxed. But the employees keep right on working. Finally, hours later, at 10:30 or 11:00 P.M., the office workers go home and the office is dark. The employees will be back at their small desks the next morning at 8:00 AM. Perhaps one night per week, these office workers go out together for dinner. Most individuals drink sake or beer until they are drunk. After several drinks, the workers may play a joke on their boss or argue violently with him/her (the following day, all that will be forgotten). The drinking session has a strong bonding effect, and the office workers regard themselves as something like a family. All decisions are made with the group in mind, rather than what is best for one of the workers.

Long-term relationships based on trust are very important in a collectivis­tic culture. For example, many Japanese companies provide their workers with lifetime employment. Maintaining positive long-term relationships is stressed. An individual should not contradict another person in public, as doing so would disrupt personal network relationships. Individuals are more likely to say what the other person wants to hear, rather than conveying infor­mation in a more direct manner that might solve a problem. Employees are particularly reluctant to tell their boss that the boss's pet idea is not working.

Face, a public self-image that an individual wants to present in a particular social context, is a major consideration in dealing with others. Every effort is made so that someone does not lose face in front of others. The Japanese pay much attention to group memberships and to other individuals in their per­sonal networks. Fitting in with others, creating and maintaining obligations, conformity, and being relationship-oriented are highly prized. Individual achievement, personal recognition, and thinking mainly for oneself are strongly discouraged. A popular Japanese saying is: "The nail that protrudes gets hammered down."

Individualists tend to be more distant in their personal interactions with others, and they must go through the process of acquiring affective relationships; collectivists, on the other hand, interact closely and are interdependent. Individualists tend to be self-motivated and can be stimulated to achieve by individual competition. Collectivists, on the other hand, are better encouraged by appealing to their group spirit and by requesting cooperation.

Collective cultures place less value on relationships with out-groups (strangers, casual acquaintances) than do individualistic cultures. There­fore, persons of a collective culture, such as the Japanese, tend to focus most of their appropriately positive behavior on persons in their in-group, in order to maintain group cohesion, cooperation, and harmony. Persons in out-groups are much less important. Individualistic cultures like the United States do not differentiate as much between out-groups and in-groups and therefore do not differentiate as much in their "friendly" behavior. This may partially explain the perception by other cultures that North Americans are overly or inappropriately familiar with strangers, or that their friendliness is shallow or insincere.

Further, collective cultures are less tolerant of variation in culturally pre­scribed behavior than are individualistic cultures.

Thus, individualism refers to the culture that emphasizes the interests of self or of his/her own immediate family. Individualism is about the rights of the individual. It seeks to let each person grow or fail on their own, and sees group-focus as denuding the individual of their inalienable rights.

In contrast, collectivism emphasizes group interests before individual interests and seeks group consensus in decision making. It seeks to put the family, group, company and country before the individual. It sees individualism as selfish and short-sighted.

Countries that exhibit individualism culture: Sweden, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Israel, Denmark.

Countries that exhibit collectivism culture: Ecuador, Colombia, Hong Kong, Latin America, Taiwan, Pakistan, Indonesia, South Korea, China, Egypt, Mexico, India, Japan, France.

Дата добавления: 2014-01-11