To take aback - to amaze

To take part - to participate

Like a word, a set expression functions as one member in a sentence, for ex. There are only two members in the following sentence: He took to his heels. - He -subject, took to his heels - predicate.

29 Set expressions fall into two major groups: set expressions proper
(собственно устойчивые сочетания) and phraseological units (фразеологичес­кие единицы).

Set expressions proper lack in figurativeness and emotional expressiveness, they do not reflect speaker's attitude to the object of their utterance. Among a number of disputable types of set expressions proper there are two which are accepted by all scholars and studied most of all, they are nominal phrases (point of view, registered letter - заказное письмо, the Milky Way, the House of Commons) and verbal phrases (to have a look, to take advantage of, to take place). Nominal set expressions cannot be usually replaced by a single word with a different stem, they usually stand for terms. Verbal set expressions are inclined to have such equivalents - single verbs that often have the same stem as one in the noun of the corresponding verbal set expression: to have a look - to look, to have a walk - to walk. It's important to emphasize that there is some stylistic difference between verbal set expressions and their equivalents. The last ones tend to be bookish: to take part - to participate.

30. Classification of phraseological units.

Phraseological units are characterised by figurativeness, emotional and stylistic expressiveness, they not only represent an object or phenomenon but convey the speaker's attitude to them.

Classification of phraseological units and the place of phraseology in the vocabulary appear controversial issues of present-day linguistics. There are a lot of British and American dictionaries of word groups and idiomatic phrases. But the choice of entries is not clear-cut: some dictionaries include not only word combinations but also separate words with interesting etymology, motivation, expressiveness, as well as greetings, proverbs, quotations. A kind of grouping based on etymology and spheres of usage was presented in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. But even the authors admit that the grouping should not be regarded as classification.

A lot of Russian scholars have shown a great interest in the theoretical aspects of the problem. The most significant theory is by V.V. Vinogradov. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, i.e. with the possibility of changing the form or the order of the components, and of substituting the whole by a single word. According to the type of motivation V.V. Vinogradov suggests three types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения) represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Ex .: to cut off with a shilling -лишить наследства, to talk through one's hat - говорить вздор, a fishy story - выдумка.

Phraseological unities (фразеологические единства) are more numerous and clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole. For ex. to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. "refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition", implying courage and integrity. Phraseological unities have the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can only be very limited. Some of them are easily translated and even international, e.g. to know the way the wind is blowing, as busy as a bee.

Phraseological combinations (фразеологические сочетания) are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: to meet a demand, requirement, necessity -удовлетворить требования, потребность, необходимость; to break a promises, an agreement, a rule - нарушить обещание, соглашение, правило. The mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymous.

28. The problem of distinguishing set expressions from compound words has not been solved yet. There are several criteria to make the difference seem obvious, though they are not applicable in all cases.

Graphic criterion. Unlike set expressions (higher school) compound words are usually written either as a single word or with a hyphen (waterproof, air-line). However, there are a lot of examples when a compound may have several graphic variants: loud speaker, loudspeaker, loud-speaker.

Phonetic criterion. Unlike set phrases, most compounds are characterised by unity stress on the first word (‘blackboard). Although we know the types with double stress and level stress (‘arm-‘chair).

Another distinguishing criterion may be found in morphological integrity of compounds. Thus, all compound nouns form the plural with the suffix -s: forget-me-nots незабудки, good-for-nothings бездельники.

To sum up all said about the problem, we should point out that none of the criteria is absolute and the issue remains disputable.

31. Set expressions have their own specific features, which enhance their

stability and cohesion. These are their euphonic, imaginative and connotative qualities. Many set expressions are distinctly rhythmical, contain alliteration, rhyme, imagery, contrast. All these qualities ensure the strongest possible contact between the elements, give them their peculiar muscular feel. These euphonic and connotative qualities prevent substitution for another purely linguistic reason — any substitution would destroy the euphonic effect.

Rhyme is also characteristic of set expressions: by hook or by crook - by any method, right or wrong. This capacity of developing an undivided transferred meaning is a feature that makes set expressions similar to words.

Semantic stylistic features contracting set expressions into units of fixed context are simile, contrast, metaphor and synonymy. For ex.: as like as two peas (simile ), a pack of lies (metaphor), proud and haughty (synonymy).

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