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Dynamic models




Functional features

Already in comparing the sound systems of different languages or dialects of the same language we could take into account not only the formal level of analysis of features and inventories but also the functional load of various sounds and their oppositions. We could see that some sounds are more common than others, and some oppositions are more powerful than others. The fact that 10 phonemes /э, n, t, i,- s, г, Э, 1, d, e/ accounted for 47% of the sample of conversational English, suggests a greater functional load carried by them and more powerful oppositions in which they are involved.

The total ratio of consonants to vowels in the sample of speech was about 2 to 1; vowels accounted for 38% of the data, consonants for 58%, and retroflex and syllable elements for the remaining 4%. Similar data in "The Encyclopeadia of the English Language" {Crystal 1995) also suggest that consonants are more important as information-carriers than vowels: the percentage is 60.79% vs. 39.21%.

The frequency of a particular phoneme may depend on the frequency of the words in which it occurs. For example, [d] does not occur in many words, but those words are very common: the, this, that, these, those, then, there, they. Most of them are function words used for deixis.

The so-called "schwa"-sound [з] is very common for two reasons: it is used in commonly appearing words, such as a, the, that, and at the same time it is most frequent in unstressed syllables which is a result of a very strong dynamic stress in English.

Unfortunately we do not possess enough data to continue the comparison of English vowels and consonants with their counterparts in Russian. We could only repeat the fact that although Russian belongs to the consonantal type of sound system, and English to the vocalic one, the frequency of English consonants, both voiced and voiceless, as well as the time they occupy in speech is a little higher than in Russian (see Table 6 above).

We have so far described the phonological system of English by discovering all the phonemes and their allophones together with statements concerning the distribution of the allophones. This model, sometimes called "static", may be applicable in language teaching, although it proves to be inadequate in explaining how phonological forms are generated: which forms are stored in our memory, how they are selected and modified for speech production. The computer era offered demand for explicit formalized phonological rales to establish man-machine interface, and "dynamic" models were called for.

Generative phonology is an alternative to the phonemic theory primarily as far as derivation of phonological forms is concerned.

We will now give a brief survey of the developments in the theory of phonology (in the chronological order). The so-called "classical model" in phonology worked out by N. Trabetzkoy at the beginning of the 20th century offered the method of phonological analysis which was done without reference to any grammatical information.

Most srtracturalist linguists also insisted that this cataloguing of segments into phonemes should be done on a separate phonological level. In Russia only the Moscow school of morphonology included morphological alternations into the phonological analysis.




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