Trading of Reserves

Aggregate reserve measures

Table 1

Billions of dollars; quarterly averages or daily data

Quarter	Required reserves	Required reserve balance,	Applied vault cash	Required clearing balances	Excess reserves
	53.5	23.8	30.9	6.0	1.2
	55.6	26.5	30.2	6.0	1.0
	57.2	26.8	31.4	6.0	1.1
	60.3	28.9	32.5	6.1	1.1

Depository institutions actively trade reserves held at the Federal Reserve among themselves, usually overnight. Those with surplus balances in their accounts transfer reserves to those in need of boosting their balances. The benchmark rate of interest charged for the short-term use of these funds is called the federal funds rate. Changes in the federal funds rate reflect the basic supply and demand conditions in the market for reserves.

Equilibrium exists in the reserves market when the demand for required and excess reserves equals the supply of borrowed plus nonborrowed reserves. Should the demand for reserves rise—say, because of a rise in checking account deposits—a disequilibrium will occur, and upward pressure on the federal funds rate will emerge. Equilibrium may be restored by open market operations to supply the added reserves, in which case the federal funds rate will be unchanged. It may also be restored as the supply of re­serves increases through greater borrowing from the discount window; in this case, interest rates would tend to rise, and over time the demand for reserves would contract as reserve market pressures are translated, through the actions of banks and their depositors, into lower deposit levels and smaller required re­serves. Conversely, should the supply of reserves expand—say, because the Federal Reserve purchases securities in the open mar­ket—the resulting excess supply will put downward pressure on the federal funds rate. A lower federal funds rate will set in mo­tion equilibrating forces through the creation of more deposits and larger required reserves and lessened borrowing from the discount window.

VI. Opposites and Synonyms.

For each of the following words you are asked to provide a synonym and another word which is opposite in meaning:

	Synonym	Opposite
discussion
to establish
branch
competition
trigger
spread
decline
long-term rates
demand
flexible
credit
unpredictable
forward-looking
disruption
up-to-the-minute information
inflation

VII. Join the halves.

On the left there are twelve halves of the sentences. On the right there are the other halves of the sentences, though not in the same order. You are required to make complete sentences.

1. The goals of monetary policy …	a) it will be too late to achieve its objectives.
2. The actions taken in the reserves market …	b) the Federal Reserve pay particularly close attention to guides to policy that are intermediate between operations in the reserves market and effects in the economy.
3. If the Federal Reserve waits to adjust rates until it sees an undesirable change in employment of prices, …	c) conjunction with a variety of other financial and economic information.
4. Some suggest that one or the other of these measures be used as an intermediate target …	d) are consistent with those goals or whether it needs to be more restrictive or more accommodative?
5. Some economists have argued that besides serving as a longer-term anchor for the price level, …	e) interest rates, and the foreign exchange value of the dollar.
6. Conversely, a weakening of the economy is associated …	f) interest rates will rise and will choke off demand and inflationary pressures.
7. Velocity is the ratio of nominal gross domestic product (GDP) …	g) with a decreased demand for money.
8. Among the frequently mentioned are monetary and credit aggregates, …	h) to the money stock (or credit aggregate).
9. If the Federal Reserve sticks to a predetermined path for money growth and does not meet that demand, …	i) are spelled out in law.
10. Others suggest that they be used less formally as indicators of the longer-term effects of monetary policy on the economy, …	j) tight control over the money stock will stabilize the economy in the shorter run.
11. But how will the Federal Reserve know whether or not its current operations in the reserves market …	k) that is one with a specific formal objective.
12. Consequently, people have suggested that …	l) affect the economy with considerable lags.

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