Second Continental Congress

By the time the Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 in Philadelphia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord had already begun in April, and while delegates were still making their way to Philadelphia, which marked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War.

John Hancock from Massachusetts was elected president of the assembly. Congress issued a petition entitled "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances" to King George III, the King of Great Britain. The Delegates adopted a strategy where the colonies would prepare for war while the Congress continued to pursue reconciliation. On July 8 the Congress adopted a petition to the King in the hopes that he would intervene in Parliament on behalf of the colonies. A former governor of Pennsylvania was chosen to carry another petition, approved in July 1775, to London and present it to the king himself but the king refused to see him. On August 23 he issued a proclamation declaring the colonies to be in a state of "open and avowed rebellion." Moderates in the Congress still hoped that the colonies could be reconciled with Great Britain, but a movement towards independence steadily gained ground. On June 17 the Battle of Bunker Hill energized the Patriots; Congress established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief in June 1775. On July 4, 1776 Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, ending all American efforts at reconciliation. Congress designed a new government in the Articles of Confederation, which operated as the nation's constitution.

The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration is a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The birthday of the United States of America—Independence Day—is celebrated on July 4, the day the wording of the Declaration was approved by Congress.

The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by asserting certain natural rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, the text of the Declaration was initially ignored after the American Revolution. Its stature grew over the years, particularly the second sentence, a sweeping statement of individual human rights:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

This sentence has been called "one of the best-known sentences in the English language" and "the most potent and consequential words in American history".

After finalizing the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as a printed broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The most famous version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Although the wording of the Declaration was approved on July 4, the date of its signing has been disputed. Most historians have concluded that it was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed. The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry.

The famous wording of the Declaration has often been invoked to protect the rights of individuals and marginalized groups, and has come to represent for many people a moral standard for which the United States should strive. This view greatly influenced Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy, and who promoted the idea that the Declaration is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.

1) Preamble
2) Natural Rights
3) King's Wrongs (List of Grievances)
4) Independence

The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was the first written constitution or plan of government of the United States of America and specified how the national government was to operate. It was drafted in 1776-77 and became the working constitution, although it was not formally ratified until 1781. The Articles legitimized the Congress in its supervision of the American Revolution, its diplomacy with Europe, and its handling of territorial issues. Nationalists complained that it was too weak, and after extensive debate it was replaced by the current Constitution in 1789.

The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed:

Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were the first constitution of the United States of America. The problem with the United States government under the Articles of Confederation was, in the words of George Washington, “no money”.

Congress could print money, but by 1786, it was useless. It could borrow money, but it could not pay it back. Under the Articles, Congress requisitioned money from the states. But no state paid all of their requisition; Georgia paid nothing. A few states paid the US an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. Nothing was paid toward the interest on debt owed foreign governments. By 1786, the United States was about to default on its contractual obligations when the principal came due.

Most of the US troops in the 625-man US Army were deployed facing British forts on American soil. They had not been paid; they were deserting and the remainder threatened mutiny. Spain closed New Orleans to American commerce. The US protested to no effect. The Barbary Pirates began seizing American commercial ships. The US had no funds to pay their extortion demands. States such as New York and South Carolina violated the peace treaty with Britain by prosecuting Loyalists for wartime activity. The US had no more credit if another military crisis required action. In Massachusetts during Shays' Rebellion, Congress had no money; General Benjamin Lincoln had to raise funds among Boston merchants to pay for a volunteer army.

Congress was paralyzed. It could do nothing significant without nine states, and some legislative business required all thirteen. By April 1786, there had been only three days out of five months with nine states present. When nine states did show up, if there were only one member of a state on the floor, that state’s vote did not count. If a delegation were evenly divided, the division was duly noted in the Journal, but there was no vote from that state towards a nine-count. States, in violation of the Articles, laid embargoes, negotiated unilaterally abroad, provided for armies and made war. The Articles Congress had “virtually ceased trying to govern.”

The vision of a “respectable nation” among nations seemed to be fading in the eyes of such men as Virginia’s George Washington and James Madison, New York’s Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, Pennsylvania’s Benjamin Franklin and George Clymer, and Massachusetts’ Henry Knox and Rufus King. The dream of a republic, a nation without hereditary rulers, with power derived from the people in frequent elections, was in doubt.

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O n the night ofAp ril 18. 1775. 700 British soldiers

marched silently out o f Boston. Their order s were to

.scizc weapons and ammunitio n that rebellious

colo nists had stored III Concord. a nearb y [O\ ",T I.

13m th e colonists we re warne d that th e soldiers were

co rning. Sig nal ligh ts were hung from the spire o f

Boston's ralles r church and rwo fast ride rs, Paul

Revere and William Dawt"S.jumpcd mro thei r

saddles and galloped o ff wi th the n ew s.

In the village ofLexington the British found scvclHy

American militi amen, farmers and tradesmen.

barri ng th eir way. These par t-rime soldie rs were

known as "Minu rcmcn.v- Tbis was because they had

promised to rake up arms im mcdiarcly -c in a

minutc- whe ne ver rhl')' we re need ed.

T he British commande r ordered the Minutem en to

return to their homes. They refused. TI1l'n someone,

nobody knows who, ti red a shot. Other shots carne

from the lin es of British soldiers. Eight Minutemen

fell dead. The fi rst shots had been fin-d III what was

to become the Ame rican War of lndcpcnd cncc.

The British soldier s reached Conco rd <I few hours

later and destroyed so me ofthe we apo ns and

gun powder there. But by the time they set off ro

return to Hosron hundreds more Minutemen had

gathered. From the th ick woods on each side o f the

Boston road they sho t down. on e b y one, 273 British

soldiers. The soldiers were still und er arrack when

they arrived back in Boston. A ring ofarmed

Ameri cans gathered rou nd the city.

The next month. May 1775, a second Conti nent al

Cong ress met in Philadelphia and began to an as an

Ameri can national government. It set up an army of

17,000 men under the command ofGeorge

Washi ngton. Washington was a Virginia landowne r

and sur veyor wi th "ex perience of fighting in the

French and Indian War. The Cont inenta l Congress

also sent representatives ro SC1.,k aid from friendly

European na tion s - especially from France, Britain's

old enemy.

By the following year th e fighting had spread beyond

Massachusetts. It had grown in to a fu ll-scale war.

On July 2, 1776, the Continental Cong ress fina lly

took th e step that mallYAmericans believed was

inevi table. It n it all political tics with Britain and

declared that " these Uni ted Colonies an.', and of rig ht

ough t to be, free and independent states." ·1\ v0 days

later. on July ~, it issued the [)a larati" " of

Independence,

The Dedaronon,~f lndependcnc c is the most un pon anr

document in American history. lt was written by

Thomas j eff erson. a Landowner and law yer from

Virg inia. Aft er repea ting that th e colonies were now

"free and ind ependent sta tes." it officially named

them the United Slates ofAmerica.

One o f th e first members o f the Conrincnral

Cong ress to sign th e Dcdaration oj bJdl'pmdmlt' was

Joh n Hancock o f Massachusett s. Hancock picked up

the pen and wrot e his name in large. clear letters"

large enough," he said, "for King George to read

wi thout his spectacles."

The Dcciaratiou of JlldCI'ClldCJ1(C was more than a

statement th at the colonies we re a new nation. It abo

set our the ideas behind th e change that was bein g

made. It claimed [hat all men had a natural right to

" Life, libert y and the pursui t ofhappiness. " It also

said that governme nts can only justly claim th e TIght

to rule if they have th e agreement ofthose they

govern - "the consent ofthe governed. "

Ideas such as the se were a central part ofthe-political

traditions that the colon ists' ancestors had brought

with them from England. Colonial leaders had also

studied them in the writings ofa n Engli sh political

thinker named j ohn Locke. Menlike JetTerson

combined Locke's ideas with their own l'xpcn encc o f

life in America to produce a new definition o f

democra tic government. This new definition said

that governments should cons ist of represent atives

elected by the people. It also said that the main reason

that govern men ts existed was to protect the rights of

individual citizens.

After some early successes. the American s did bad ly

in the war against the Bri nsh. Washington's army

was more o f all armed mob than an effective fighting

fo rce. Few ofthe men had any mili tary tr aining and

many obeyed only those orders rhar suited them.

O fficers quarr eled cons tantly ove r th eir rank and

authority. Washington set to work to tr ain his men

and turn them into disciplined soldie rs. Our thi s took

time. and meanwhik the Americans suffered dcfca r

after defeat. In September 1776, only two 11I0mhs

aft er the Dedaration of independence. the British

captured New York City. Wdshington wrorc to Ius

brother that he feared that the Am ericans were very

close to losing thr-war.

Success began to come to rhc Americans in October

1777. They rrapped a British army of almos t ("OOO

men at Sara tog a in northern New York. The British

comman der was cur otffrom his supplies and his

men we re facing starvation. lie was forced to

surrender. The Americans marched their prisoners to

Boston. Here. after swea ring never again to fight

agains t the Americans. rhc prisoners were pur o n

board ships and sent back to England.

Uenj ami n Franklin. the American ambassado r to

France, was delighted when he received the news of

the vicro rv at Saratoga, l ie used it to persuade the

French go vernment to j oin in the Stru ggle again st

Britain. In Februar y 1 77~, the French king, Louis

XVl. signed an alliance with the Americans, Frenc h

ships, sold iers and mo ney were soon playing all

impo rtant part in the war.

From 1nHonwards most ofthe figh ting rook place

in the sou thern colonies. It was here that the war

came to an end. In Septem ber 1781. George

Washington. leadin g a combined American and

French army. surrounded 8,000 British troops under

Gl'neral Cornwallis at Yorktown, 0 11 the coast o f

Virgi nia, Cornwallis was worried. bur he expected

Bnrish ships to arrive and rescue or reinforce his

army, When shi ps arrived off Yorktown, however,

they were French ones. Com wnllis was trap ped.

On October 17, 1781, he sur rendered his army to

Washington. When the news reached Lo ndon the

British Prim e MlIlister. Lord North. threw up his

hands in despair...It is all over!" he cried.

North was righ t. T he Britivh star red to withdraw

(heir forces from America and Brit ish and American

representatives began to discuss peace term s. In ti ll'

Treaty of Paris. which was signed in September

1783, Britain officiall y recognized her former

colonies as an independent nation. The treaty granted

the new United Stares all of North America from

Canada in the north to Florida ill the sou th, and from

the Atlantic coas t to rhc Mississippi River

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