III. Insert the proper word into the following sentences and explain its meaning with the help of the dictionary

I. Answer the questions.

Text 2. Development of Law

Law develops as society evolves. Historically, the simplest societies were tribal. The members of the tribe were bonded together initially by kinship and worship of the same gods. Even in the absence of courts and legislature there was law – a blend of customs, morality, religion, and magic. The visible authority was the ruler, or chief; the highest authorities were the gods whose will was revealed in the forces of nature and in the revelations of the tribal head or the priest. Wrongs against the tribe, such as sacrilege or breach of tribal customs, were met with group sanctions, and, the tribe members thought, with the wrath of the gods. People appeased the gods in ritualistic ceremonies ending perhaps in sacrifice or expulsion of the wrongdoer. Wrongs against individuals, such as murder, theft, adultery, or failure to repay a debt, were avenged by the family of the victim, often in actions against the family of the wrongdoer. Revenge of this kind was based on tribal custom, a major component of early law.

Tribal society gradually evolved into territorial confederations. Governmental structures emerged, and modern law began to take shape. The most significant historical example is Roman law, which influenced most of the legal systems of the world.

The common-law systems of England, and later of the U.S., developed in a different manner. Before the Norman Conquest (1066), England was a loose confederation of societies, the laws of which were largely tribal and local. The Anglo-Norman rules created a system of centralized courts that operated under a single set of laws. This legal system, known as the common law of England, began with common customs, but over time, it involved the courts in lawmaking (in response to changes in society).

1. By what were the members of the tribe bonded together?

2. What were the highest authorities during the tribal age?

3. What were possible wrongs against the tribe?

4. Which legal system influenced the law of many countries?

5. When did the Norman Conquest of England happen?

II. Are these statements true or false according to the text?

1. Tribesmen were bonded together by constitution.

2. The simplest societies were based on slavery.

3. Vengeance was often used in primitive societies.

4. In 1066 England was invaded by Saxons.

5. The legal system of the USA developed on the English basis.

1. Law develops as … evolves.

2. … was a blend of customs, morality, religion, and magic.

3. Wrongs against the tribe were met with group ….

4. … was based on tribal custom.

5. The common-law … of England developed in a different manner.

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