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Read aloud the minimal pairs below. Single out the phonemes which are contrasted
SI III IV /3/ /r/ /I/ /k/ /S/ /0/ vant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or multiple, e.g. /t/ and /d/ differ along the following lines: /t/ /d/ voiceless fortis voiced lenis Their other characteristic features are irrelevant, thus /t/ and M/ have only one distinctively relevant feature — single opposition. We can prove that this opposition is really phonemic by the minimal pairs: ten — den, time — dime, try — dry. If there are two distinc- Commutation Table 4 M N IV Ш № /r/ /i/ /к/ /g/ /о/ /Ь/ perch— pope— pay— pine,— rope— pipe— top— play— pig— pip— pen- birch— best— bay— bob— babe— bound- bell— bar— bide— bib— be— search zest lay bosh beige round yell car guide bing he mad— meal— mike— make— room— mice— mel- mad— met— rum— mouse- yellow wo- west— wife— whine— — wipe— well— wave— wave— — we- und— zest life shine ripe yell cave gave atth— sound health found— feel— fife— fee— roof— foot— • folk— fat— fame— rough— force- veal— veal— vice— veer— — vice— veer— van— vet— have— view- thin- think— thaw— thief- ruth- thumb- thaw- throw— throw— hath— third- they— thee— thy— thy- bathe- thy- then- that- these- with— there- talk— booty— tight— toe— root— talks— tongue- tin— tap— sit— Toby- died— deal— dives— death— rude— doe— door— dan- died— bad— dear- cancer knock— known- knife— nave— bane— knock- hap— night— name— Ian— near- peace— sock— sock— base— — sock— sore— city— same— sis— sit— peas rock slock beige rock your kitty game sing hit zest— zone— ruse— sest— zoo— zinc— easel— has— zero— lest shown rouge rest you kink eagle hang hero look— rule— lice— less— lick— lame— silk— late— shook rouge rice yes kick game sink bate ruche— shock— shell— shin— shame- wish— she- rouge— — beige— — — — rack— rid— rag— — roof- yap— yes— — cap guess coat— sock— calf- bag— gear- tively relevant features, the opposition is double, e.g. /p/ and /d/ differ along the following lines: /p/ /d/ voiceless fortis voiced lenis labial, bilabial | lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar This opposition is really phonemic. It can be proved by the minimal pairs: pie — die, pail — dale, pry — dry. The opposition /b/ — 1Ы Table 5
is multiple because these phonemes differ along the following linesi /b/ /h/ voiced lenis voiceless fortis labial, bilabial pharyngal occlusive constrict ive The phonemic nature of this opposition can be proved by minimal pairs, e.g. be — he, bit — hit, bait — hate. Soviet phoneticians perform commutation tests on the basis of the knowledge of the grammatical form and the meaning of the words, they apply the semantic method of phoneme identification. The method of minimal pairs helps to establish the inventory of phonemes, it is one of the two main problems of phonological analysis. The other big problem phonologists are confronted with is to define the phonemic status of the sound in the neutral position. There is one more big problem in phonology — theory of distinctive features. It was originated by N. S. Trubetskoy and developed by such foreign scientists as R, Jackobson, C. G. Fant, M. Halle, N. Chomsky, P. Ladefoged, H. Kucbra, G. K. Monroe and many Soviet phonologists, such as L. R. Zinder, G. S. Klychkov, V. Ya. Plotkin, Stepona-vicius and many others. The taxonomy of differentiator features is being constructed on the basis of objective reality of phonological distinction, which really exist in phonemic classes. Distinctive features are the main, basic elements of variability in different languages. The commutation of meaning and utterance is effected due to these features. Enriching the theory of distinctive features Prof. G. S. Klychkov introduces a modal feature of "turbulency" to make the hierarchy of consonants more logical. He states that the main question of distinctive theory is the criterion of frequency and the direction of markedness. There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its I. I. A Baudouin de Courteney (1845-1929) defined the phoneme as a psychical image of a sound. He originated the so called "menta-Jist view of the phoneme. In our days Prof. V. Ya. Ptotkin thinks it appropriate to revive the terms "kinema" and "acousma" coined 52 by Baudouin deCourteneyfor the psychic images of articulatory movements and their auditory counterparts and blended into "kinakeme" to designate the bilateral psychophonic unit He states that experimental investigations demonstrate the impossibility of accepting the phoneme as the basic unit in the production and perception of oral speech. Speech production and perception are cerebral activities first and foremost, while the sound chain is the vehicle for their externalization. Thus phonemes are composed of kinakemes which possess the paradignr-atic, syntagmatic and semantic properties, characteristic of -other phonological units, and are ultimate phonological units. The acceptance of the kinakeme makes the notion of distinctive phonemic features redundant in phonemic theory because the kinakeme covers practically the same ground as the notion of "distinctive feature". (G. Fant considers the term "minimal category" or "distinction" much better than "distinctive feature".) V. Ya. Plotkin suggests two dichotomies: jl. Kinakemic system consists of two sub-systems: vocalic and con: sonantal, which are not rigidly separated. 2. All kinakemes are divided into two categories: modal and lo-cational. Modal kinakemes are concerned with the origin of sounds and the vertical dimensions of the vocal tract. (1) Obstructional: a) occlusion, b) constriction, (2) Phonal: a) sonority, b) discordance. Consonantal modal kinakemes determine the mode of obstruction and the acoustic type of sound-tone or noise, their vocalic kinakemes deal with the height of the vocal tract. Locational kinakemes: vocalic and consonantal, function on the horizontal plane, activating certain areas along the vocal tract, (1) Articulatory: a) prelinguality, b) postlinguality. (2) Pointal: a) prealveolarity, b) postalveolarity. "The-phoneme retains its status of the minimal unit of sound in the language system. Its indivisibility should be qualified as inability to be broken up into smaller units of sound." "As for the ultimate phonological unit, it is an instrument for the linguistic structuring of extralinguistic substance which might be called prephonic rather than phonic."1 II. The abstraction^ conception of the phoneme was originated III. N. S. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938), L. vBloomfield (1887-1949), 1 Plotkin V. Ya. Systems of Ultimate Phonological Units // Phonetica, 1976.— P. 82. IV. The physical view on the phoneme was originated by D. Jones This view was shared by the American scientists B. Bloch and G. Träger. They define the phoneme as a class of phonetically similar sounds, contrasting and mutually exclusive with all similar classes in the language. V. The problem of the phoneme can be solved on a "populational VI. L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944) was the first to define the phoneme Questions 1. What is phonology? 2. How are phonemes discovered? 3. What is commutation test? 4. What is the difference between phonemes and allophones? How are they represented in writing? 5. How are allophones classified? 6. What patterns of phoneme distribution do you know? 7. Speak on the method of discovery of minimal distinctive features. 8. What are the main problems of phonological analysis? 9. What do you know about the history of the phoneme discovery? 10. What is a kinakeme? П. How is the phoneme defined by Soviet Exercises jug—bug led—laid lay—He judge—budge men—main say—sigh birch—-bird singe—sinned keen—coin try—Troy bays—buys lied—Lloyd burn—bone fork—folk fawn—phone fur—foe girl—goal read—reared lead—leered day—deer pays—peers pace—pierce pen—pain edge—age law—low saw—so gnaw—no pause—pose pearl—pole pursed—post curt—coat perch—poach cursed—coast red—rared very—vary bed—bared pier—pair dearie—dairy bay—by days—dies roars—rose awed—ode called—cold torn—tone barred—bowed Karl—cowl part—pout art—out no—now do—doer pear—poor my—mire write—riot bowered—b owed 2. Read these words. Pay attention to the allophonic difference of one and the same phoneme. /t/ aspirated: take, tall, tone unaspirated: steak, stall, stone no audible release: outpost, halfpin, football, white chalk nasal release: cotton, button, eaten, utmost lateral release: cattle, atlas, at last partly devoiced: do, dog, day voiced: leader, order, murder voiceless: bid, mad, road no audible release: good dog, bed time, good cheese nasal release: admit, road map, red map lateral release: middle, headless, badly, good luck ft/ aspirated: come, car, coal unaspirated: baker, talking, equal, secret no audible release: locked, deck chair, blackboard, dark night, black Imagic, begged lateral release: glow, bugle, struggle voiceless: dog, leg, vague partly devoiced: go, geese, girt, glass voiced; figure, eager, ago, begin f.5 3, Read these words. Pay attention to the positional allophones of the /1/ pho- neme.
pull—-mill fool—hall less—leak doll—girl let—list coal—twelve 4. Read these words. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the de voiced allophones of the /1, w, r/ phonemes after /p, t, k/. cleft twice cleg tweed ply quiet please quaver clerk queer try tree pry price cry crone crop plight—blight class—glass clad—glad clean—glean clue—glue 5. Read these words. Mind the distributional character of the /h/ phoneme. |he, hit, help, happy, half, hop, horn, hut, hook, who, her, habitual, hay, high, how, hoist, hoe, hear, hare, houri 6. Read these words. Pay attention to the complementary nature of soft and /p/ pea —paw /b/ bee —bark /t/ tea —talk /d/ deep—dope /k/ key —car /g/ geese —goose /t(7 cheese—chosej /dg/ jet —jar Щ far —fee /v/ veel —vote /9/ theme—thumb /5/ thee —those; /r/ read—rode /s/ see—saw
/z/ zeal—zone /j/ yes—young /Jf/ she—shoe /w/ we—wet /m/ me—met /n/ knee—net /п/ пол /п7 пёк /б/ бак /67 бязь /т/ ток /т7 тёк 1 Gimson А, С,
сон сёл зол зять шёлк /м/ мак /м7 мять /н/ нос /н7 нёс /л/ лад /л7 лёд /д/ да /ф1/ Фёкла /ж/ жар /и/ яр /д1/ дядя /в/ воз /ж'/ жжёщь /р/ рад] /к/ как /в7 вёз /х/ холм /р7 ряд Control Tasks 1. Give examples to prove that the following features of the English consonants and vowels are distinctive, orality—nasality 'plosiveness—constrictiveness labial- voicelessness—voicedness ' ity tenseness—laxness frontness—backness *2. Give examples of combinatory allophones of the /r/ phoneme. *3. What positional aflophones occur as a result of palatalization in the Russian language? *4. Give examples for 'different types of distribution: (a) complementary, (fa) contrast!ve, (c) free variation. 5. Give examples of: (a) single opposition, (b) double opposition, (c) multiple 6. Give theoretical and practical proofs to explain constitutive, recognitive 7. Match the words below to obtain minimal pairs. catch, pip, cheap, sap, he, jail, lap, pair, say, sink, rip, fail, lass, Sam, mink, cap, tear, she, lay, heap, match ENGLISH CONSONANTS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes. As has been pointed out the main method of establishing phonemes of a given language is the commutation test or discovery of minimal pairs through which the establishment of the phonemic status of each sound is accomplished. When in a contrastive pair one consonan;pnoneme is opposed to any other consonant phoneme in at least one position, this pair is called minimal,1 For example, in the minimal pair pen — Ben the phoneme /p/ is opposed to the phoneme /b/ due to the presence and absence of voice; it is the only distinctive feature of this minimal pair. All the other features of the pair pen — Ben are irrelevant. If there are more than one distinctive feature in a pair, it is called sub-minimal. For example, the pair treasure — pressure is sub-minimal because the opposition is due to: (1) the presence and absence of voice in the /g — J/ phonemes, (2) forelingual articulation of the /t/ phoneme and bilabial articulation of the /p/ phoneme. All the other fea- 1 "Minimal pairs are useful, when found, but not necessarily to be expected, and not essential to the work of analysis." 'ßteason H, A. Op. cit.— P. 280.) tures are distinctively irrelevant. Minimal pairs occur in identical, sub-minimal in similar environments. It should be borne in mind that distinctively irrelevant features can be of two types: incidental, which may or may not be present in a phoneme, and such, without which the phoneme can't exist at all. For example, the presence or absence of voice in the word final consonants /с, з/ in the Russian рос — роз is a 'genuinely incidental or redundant feature, whereas the forelingual articulation of /t/ and the bilabial articulation of /p/ are relevant differentiatory features. Palatalization is phonemically irrelevant, incidental in English and relevant in Russian, etc. The phonological analysis of the system of English consonant phonemes helps to establish 24 phonemes: /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, 9, 3, s, z, J\ 5. h, tj, 65, m, n, n, wt r, j, 1, a1/ Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of consonants of the English language. I. Work of the Vocal Cords and the Force of Exhalation Voiceless — fort is vst voiced — lenis /p—b/ pen—Ben /t—d/ ten—den /k—g/ coat—goat Voiceless — voiced opposition is simultaneously based on for-tis — lenis distinction. It is not so in the Russian language where the voiceless — voiced opposition is based only on the presence or absence of voice. If we compare the English /p, t, k, b, d, g/ and the Russian In, т, к, б, д, г/, we may state that: in the initial position the English /b, d, g/ are weakly voiced, the Russian /б, д, г/ are fully voiced: book — бук goose — гусь deem — Дима In English /p, t, k/ in the initial position are aspirated fort is, in Russian /п, т, к/ are unaspirated, therefore in English the /p — b, t — d, k — g/ oppositions are based on breath-force distinction, whereas in Russian, the pairs /n — б, т — д, к — г/ differ due to voice — absence of voice distinction (but not in the final position). in English (plead—bleed tip —dip come—gum peach—beach tea —Dee cot —got pat —bat tear—dear cane—gain 1 /a/ is a "facultative phoneme". Some authors prove its phonemic status in Russian пой—бой тал—дал кот—год пей—бей тол—дол кит—гид 2. Active Organ of Speech and the Place of Articulation This principle of consonant classification provides the basts for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Labial vs. lingual pain — cane bun — ton fame — tame In these pairs the labial bilabial /p/ is opposed to the lingual back-Hngual velar /k/; the labial bilabial /b/ is opposed to the lingual fore-lingual apical HI; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the lingual forelingual apical /t/. (2) Lingual vs. pharyngat (glottal) Tim — him this — hiss foam — home care — hair In these pairs the lingual forelingual apical /t/ is opposed to the pharyngal /hi; the lingual forelingual apical interdental 1Ы is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the lingual backlingual velar Ikl is opposed to the pharyngal /h/. Within the group of labial, bilabial may be opposed to labiodental. wear — fair mice — vice In these pairs the bilabial /w/ is opposed to the labio-dental HI; the bilabial /m/ is opposed to the labio-dental /v/. Within the group of forelingual, apical may be opposed to cacuminal. dim — rim In this pair the apical forelingual alveolar /d/ is opposed to the cacuminal forelingual alveolar /r/. Within the group of lingual, forelingual can be opposed to medio-lingual. tongue — young jet — yet In these pairs the forelingual (apical alveolar) /t/ is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) 1)1] the forelingual (apical palato-alveolar) l&$l is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) /j/. 3. Manner of the Production of Noise This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Occlusive (stops) vs. constictive pine—fine Bern—fern dare —share bat —that bore—thaw bee — thee care—there mine—t hine ca me—lame In these pairs the occlusive /p, b, d, k, ml are opposed to the constrictive /f, J1, S, 9, 1/. (2) Constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive (affricates) fare — chair fail — jail work — jerk In these pairs the constrictive /f, w/ are opposed to the occlusive-constrictive (affricates) /tf, dg/. "Within the groups of occlusives, or stops, and constrictives, noise consonants may be opposed to sonorants. (a) occlusive: noise vs. nasal somrants pine—mine boat — moat tale—nail dead—need kick—king In these pairs the occlusive noise /p, b, t, d, k/ are opposed to the nasal sonorants /m, n, rj/. (b) constrictive: noise vs. sonorants same — lame vain — lane then — when In these pairs the constrictive noise consonants /s, v, ö/ are opposed to the constrictive sonor ants /1, w/. Unicentral constrictive consonants may be opposed to bicentral consrictive consonants. (c) constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same — shame thine — wine In these pairs the constrictive unicentral /s, 5/ are opposed to the constrictive bicentral Ц, w/. Constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing can be opposed to constrictive consonants with a round narrowing. (d) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing fame — same vat — sat In these pairs the constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing /f, v/ are opposed to the constrictive consonants with a round narrowing /si. In all these oppositions only examples with the initially opposed consonant phonemes are given. It does not mean that the pairs of medially and finally opposed consonants, that prove their phonemic status, may not be found.
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