Critical realism

I

Questions and Tasks

1. Give the main facts of Washington Irving's life.

2. What was Irving's first major work?

3. What was his most famous work?

4. Comment on the composition of The Sketch Book.

5. Speak on Irving's other works.

6. Why is Irving called the Father of American prose?

Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851)

James Fenimore Cooper ['cfceimz 'fenimo: 'ки:рэ] was born in Burling­ton, New Jersey, in the family of a rich landowner.

James Fenimore Cooper

This place now called Coopers-town, was a frontier town; beyond it was wooded wilderness. The future author grew up in Cooperstown where he saw the varied life on the border of wilderness. Ые heard many tales of adventures and learned to feel the mystery of the dark forest.

He studied at Yale for three yeas but most of their education he got from out-door life. When James was ten years old, he could ride on horseback, fish, swim, shoot with bow and arrow and skate. In 1806 he joined the navy and for a year he served on a merchant ship as an ordinary sailor and then he was a midshipman in the United States Navy. In 1810 James Cooper married and settled down to a life of a farmer and country gentleman.

Cooper began writing at the age of thirty. In 1820 he produced his first novel Precaution. This novel on English manners was a failure but it succeeded in arousing persistence in the young writer. In 1821 he published his second book The Spy which dealt with events of the War of Independence. The book was an immediate success in England and America. Its success made him write

another book The Pioneers, and later The Last of the Mohicans. He wrote six novels for five years, and they established his repu­tation as a writer.

In 1826 Cooper went to Europe for a tour. He had spent seven years (1826— 1834) travelling in England, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. He worked all the time. He wrote seven novels, a lot of articles, essays and letters.

Cooper left about 40 books belonging to various genres: 1) five romances of the American frontier The Leatherstocking Tales; 2) sea tales, the most famous among which are The Pilot (1823), Red Rover (1827), and The Two Admirals (1842); 3) historical novels, such as Lionel Lincoln (1825), The Bravo (1831), TheHei-denmauer (1832) and The Headsman (1833); 4) a social satire The Monikins (1836).

According to their merits Cooper's works are very unequal and his views on various subjects are contradictory. In his his­torical novels on Europe Cooper showed the superiority of Amer­ican democracy. Later, when he returned from the trip to Eu­rope, he was disappointed in American life. In his novels Home­ward Bound (1838), Home as Found (1838) and his essays A Latter to his Countrymen (1834) and The American Democrat (1838) Cooper criticized the bourgeoisie, its lack of culture and the cor­ruption of the press.

James Fenimore Cooper died at Cooperstown on September 14, 1851.

Vocabulary

arouse [s'rauz] v вызывать persistence [pa'sistans] n настойчивость

contradictory Lkontre'diktan] а про- succeed [ssk'si:d] v суметь сделать

тиворечивый что-л.

frontier ['frAntja] о пограничный wilderness [ 'wildsnis] n дикая мест-
midshipman ['midjipmsn] n корабель- ность

ный гардемарин

The Leatherstocking Tales

Cooper's fame as a novelist rests on his five novels of the American frontier, called The Leatherstocking Tales. To follow the sequence of events we should read them in the order given below: The Deerslayer (1841), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), The Pioneers (1823) and The Prairie (1827). The name of the hero is Natty Bumppo ['naeti: 'Ьлтри:].

The author describes the America of the 18th century when it was still being explored and colonized by Europeans who settled there and drove the Indians from their land. _н3£е/ис&1 'The Deerslayer show s Bumppo's youth as a hunter brought up * among the Delaware [' debwea] Indians. He is a perfect woodsman. The Delaware Indians are his best friends. They have taught him to read the signs of the virgin forest, to follow trail, to become a good marksman.

Every leaf or twig tells him a whole story of people and wild animals passing through the wood. Cooper stresses that Bumppo's nobility of spirit, his self-reliance, justice and fidelity have been developed by the life he has led in the forest and his closeness to the Indians. The writer emphasizes that the white people, intruding on the Indian hunting-grounds, provoke wars and bring corruption to the noble and simple Indians.

In The Pioneers Natty Bumppo comes into an open conflict with the bourgeois law which defends property. He is punished for hunting a deer out of season.

In The Prakie, Natty, now an old man, leaves his forests, being driven out by the advance of civilization, and lives as a trapper on the Western Plains. The sound of the axe drives him further and further to the West. He dies conquered by the civilization he hates.

Cooper was a good storyteller. His descriptions of nature, exciting incidents, pursuits, last-minute rescues keep the reader in suspense. His fame rests on the variety of dramatic incident and vivid depiction of romantic backgrounds.

The portraits of the Indians depend on whether they support the English or their enemies, the French. The supporters of the English are noble whereas those of the French are cunning.

Yet, the customs of the Indian tribes and their struggle against the invaders have been described in detail and true to historical facts.

Cooper's main merit lies in the fact, that he managed to convince the readers of the human worth of the Indians. The character of Natty Bumppo will remain in the reader's memory as one of the most remarkable fictional heroes in world literature.

Vocabulary

sequence ['sirkwans] n порядок следо­вания suspense [sas'pens] n тревога ожидания to keep smb in suspense держать кого-л. в напряженном ожидании trail [treil] n тропа trapper ['гтэерэ] п охотник twig [twig] n веточка virgin ['v3:qjm] а девственный woodsman ['wudzman] n лесной жи­тель worth [W3:9] n достоинство

advance [sd'vains] n приближение emphasize ['emibsaiz] vподчеркивать fictional ['fikjbnl] о вымышленный fidelity [fi'dehti] n верность intrude [m'tru:d] v вторгаться marksman ['marksman] л меткий стре­лок provoke [pra'vsuk] v вызывать pursuit [pa'sjuit] n погоня rescue freskju:] n спасение self-reliance ['selfn'laians] n уверен­ность в себе

Questions and Tasks

1. Relate the story of James Fenimore Cooper's life.

2. When did Cooper start writing?

3. What book was an immediate success in England and America?

4. How many books did Cooper write?

5. What genres do they belong to?

6. Name the five novels Cooper's fame rests on.

7. Describe the hero of the novels Natty Bumppo.

8. Why do Cooper's novels keep the reader in suspense?

9. Comment on Cooper's contribution to American literature.

10. What does his main merit lie in?

Edgar Рое (1809-1849)

Edgar Allan Рое fedga 'эе1эп 'рэи], out­standing romantic poet and short-story wri­ter, was one of the first professional writers of the United States. But in his lifetime he was more popular in Europe than at home.

Edgar Рое was born in Boston in 1809. The son of actor parents, he was left an orphan at the age of three. And though he was taken under protection of a pros­perous tobacco merchant John Allan, his childhood was miserable. Mr Allan's business took him abroad, and from 1815 to 1820 Рое lived with the family in Scot­land and England. He attended a fine clas­sical preparatory school. There he wrote Latin verses and learned boxing. Back in the United States, he was sent to the University of Virginia. These studies he combined with writing poetry, and all the while he read and read^and read. Yet Рое was unhappy at the university. His sensitive pride was wounded by the social barrier between him and the rich Southern boys. At the end of the first year Mr Allan decided to remove him from the university. The tobacco merchant had never understood the boy's vocation for art. He made him a clerk in his business. Рое immediately ran away and went to Boston. In Boston he published his first volume of poetry Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827). Not a single copy was sold. Then he published in Baltimore his second volume of poems Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems (1829). His poems again passed unnoticed. In 1831 Рое published his third edition of poems, this time in New York. However, Рое first became famous not as a poet, but as a writer of fiction, with a story he wrote for a magazine. It was the story MS¹ Found in a Bottle, It was printed in the Baltimore

¹ MS — сокр. от manuscript 282

Saturday Visitor and won him a prize of 50 dollars. In 1835 he got a position on the Southern Literary Messenger. He published his old and new tales and poems in this magazine. He wrote many book reviews which won popularity for the magazine. After Рое had married a very young girl Virginia Clemm, the daughter of his father's sister, Maria, he spent the rest of his life in Philadelphia and New York. Soon his young wife became very ill with tuberculosis. In 1847 his wife died, and in October 1849 Edgar Allan Poe's life ended. During his lifetime only a few of his stories and poems won fame.

Edgar Рое distinguished himself in three fields: in the short story, poetry and criticism. He wrote about 60 stories and 48 poems. The writer is a great master of the short story. His prose is direct, energetic, clear and aimed to focus the reader's attention on one particular idea. His aim in every work, he said, was to make a strong impression on the reader. Poe's stories may be divided into: 1) horror stories and 2) detective stories.

The most distinguished horror stories are: The Fall of the House of Usher, The Black Cat, The Descent into Maelstrom. The horror stories concentrate on various forms of suffering. They represent a psychological study of anxiety and terror, of passion, anger, revenge and other emotions suffered by men who think they are destined for some strange fate. All Poe's best stories show some triumph of mind over the danger to which the hero seems doomed.

The detective stories are mathematical at their foundation. Having invented a combination of events and circumstances the author logically follows step by step their development and the consequence comes with the precision of the solution of a mathematical problem.

Рое is the father of the detective story in America. He created the first of a long line of fictional master detectives Auguste Dupin [o:'gAst dju:pe]. Dupin is a very attractive character in Allan Poe's stories. The reader delights in his common sense, wit and optimism. The author endows him with extraordinary powers of deduction and analysis. Dupin is the forerunner of Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes.

focus ['faukss] v сосредоточивать forerunner |Тэ:'глпэ] п предшественник harmony ['гт:тэш] п соответствие precision [pn'si3sn] n точность psychological [,saika'lt)d3ik3l] а психо­логический sensitive ['sensitrv] а уязвимый solution [ss'lujan] n решение vocation [vsu'keijan] n склонность

Poe's best known detective stories are: The Murder in Rue Morgue and The Mystery of Marie Roget.

Рое is a poet of beauty. His constant themes are the death of a beautiful woman and the grief caused by it.

Poe's best poems are: The Raven, The Bells, Annabel Lee, and some of the lyrics and sonnets.

The European poets appreciated the harmony between idea and form achieved by Edgar Allan Рое. The Russian composer Rakhmaninov was so impressed by The Bells that he set it to music; and the poet Valery Bryusov translated many of his poems and called Рое the greatest poet of the United States.

Vocabulary

anxiety [aen'zaisti] n тревога barrier ['Ьэепэ] п барьер combine [кэт'Ьат] v сочетать consequence [ 'ktmsikwans] n резуль­тат deduction [di'dvkfan] n дедукция destine ['destm] v предопределять doom [du:m] v обрекать endow [m'dau] v наделять „

Questions and Tasks

1. Give a brief account of Poe's lif

2. When was the beginning of his literary career?

3. Did he write some more poems?

4. Did Рое become famous as a poet or as a writer of fiction?

5. What story won him a prize?

6. What fields of literature did Рое distinguish himself?

7. Characterize Poe's stories.

8. Comment on his horror stories and detective ones.

9. Name Poe's most distinguished horror and detective stories.

10. Who is a very attractive character in Allan Poe's stories?

11. What are the themes of Poe's poems?

12. What are his best poems?

13. What did the European poets appreciate in his poems?

14. Who were the prominent men in Russia who were impressed by Poe's work?

Henry Longfellow (1807-1882)

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow [ 'henn 'w3:d2W3:8 'lnnfelau] was bom in the little town of Portland, in the State of Maine on the Atlantic coast in the family of a well-to-do lawyer.

The family kept alive the memory of the War of Independence, and as a boy Longfellow was told about the heroic deeds of his grandfather who had been a general in Washington's army, and about his uncle Henry who had been an officer in the US Navy and had been killed in 1804 while defending his coun- ^{enry a swor} '^{m9 e m} try. The family traditions of heroism played a great role in the life of young Longfellow.

Prepared mostly at private schools, he attended Bowdoin fbtwdn] College from 1821 to 1825, and there he wrote his first verses and stories and showed great aptitude for foreign languages. Having published his first poem at thirteen he dreamed of a literary career. On his graduation, he was made professor of Modern Languages at Bowdoin. He spent three years in France, Spain, Italy and Germa­ny, studying European languages and literature.

In 1829 Longfellow returned home and began teaching foreign languages, first at Bowdoin College and then, in 1834, as a professor of Harvard University.

In 1835 Longfellow published his first book Outre-Mer¹ [.ulrei'mer]: A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea, a series of travel-sketches modelled on Washington living's Sketch Book. In 1835 he made a second trip to Europe, visiting Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Holland, where he studied German and Northern literatures to qualify himself for his appointment at Harvard. In 1839 he published his novel Hyperion

Outre-Mer — фр. «За морем»

[hai'pianan] and a collection of poems Voices of the Night. In 1841 anew book of poems Ballads and Other Poems saw print. By that time he was well known as an American poet, and his fame steadily spread.

After his third trip to Europe Longfellow published his masterpiece, a collection of verses Poems on Slavery (1842). Slavery had become the most urgent question of the day. In these verses Longfellow con­demned the shameful institution of slavery. In his political lyrics he gives the sad and shameful picture of slavery in the South of America.

In the poem The Slave's Dream a black slave, on a hot summer noon on a Southern plantation, weary from his heavy work, falls asleep in the sun, his hand grasping the reaping hook. He dreams he is back in his native Africa. He sees his wife and children. Sud­denly this vision is rudely and cruelly interrupted by two severe blow of a long whip. The raging overseer whips the slave to death.

In another poem, The Negro in the Dismal Swamp, the author describes a typically American scene of those days — the hunt­ing down of a slave.

In the dark fens of the Dismal Swamp The hunted Negro¹ lay; He saw the fire of the midnight camp, And heard at times a horse's tramp And a bloodhound's distant bay.

Where hardly a human foot could pass,

Or a human heart would dare,

On the quaking turf of a green morass

He crouched in the rank and tangled grass,

Like a wild beast in his lair.

A poor old slave, infirm and lame;

Great scars deformed his face;

On his forehead he bore the brand of shame²,

And the rags, that hid his mangled frame,

Were the livery of disgrace.

¹ The hunted Negro — загнанный негр

² the brand of shame — клеймо позора (на лицах негров иногда выжигали
букву или какой-либо знак, чтобы легче было их опознать в случае побега)

All things above were bright and fair, All things were glad and free; Lithe squirrels darted here and there, And wild birds filled the echoing air With songs of Liberty!

On him alone was the doom of pain¹, From the morning of his birth; On him alone the curse of Cain² ' Fell, like a frail on the garnered grain, And struck him to the earth!³

-

The Poems on Slavery were published eighteen years before the Civil War broke in 1861. Longfellow foretold the coming of a war that would free the Negro slaves at a time when nobody believed it could be possible.

Another poem which was finished in 1847 was Evangeline [i 'vaend3ili:n]. It was the story of how the Acadian [э 'keidian] farmers⁴ were driven away from their village. It was the most beautiful poem Longfellow had written so far.

Longfellow's philosophical lyrics were a great success in the fifties and sixties during the Civil War. Especially popular was his poem The Building of the Ship. The people in Longfellow's poem are represented by a tireless master worker who spares no effort to build a beautiful ship — a democratic state, a republic, where the freedom and equality of the citizens is the supreme law. In this poem Longfellow clearly expresses his social ideals.

In his mature years Longfellow created beautiful lyrics about nature. American nature came to life under Longfellow's pen.

¹ On him alone was the doom of pain — Он один был обречен на страдание

² the curse of Cain — проклятие Каина (согласно библейской легенде, Каин
был первым убийцей среди людей и своим преступлением навлек вечное
проклятие на все человечество)

³ struck him to the earth — сразило его, повергло его на землю

⁴ the Acadian farmers — фермеры из Акейдии (Новая Шотландия, провин­
ция Канады)

Не compiled and translated a vast anthology called Poets of Eu­rope. This colossal work of translating poets of different times and different peoples was finished by the end of the seventies when the last of the 31 volumes saw print. Up to the present day this anthology remains one of the best of this kind. Besides this collection of European, lyrical poetry Longfellow translated in 1865-1867 Dante's Divine Comedy. By the end of his life Longfellow had won recognition all over the world. Many universities awarded him with honorary degrees, so did the Russian Academy of Sciences of which he became a member. He was also elected to membership by the Spanish, British and French Academies of Sciences. Even when already an old man, Henry Longfellow continued writing. Longfellow died at the age of 75. He is the only American poet whose bust is in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner.

Before him the descriptions of nature by poets, though very beautiful, were abstract. He was especially skilful in depicting the seasons of the year.

Rain in Summer

How beautiful is the rain! After the dust and heat, In the broad and fiery street¹, In the narrow lane, How beautiful is the rain!

How it clatters along the roofs,

Like the tramp of hoofs!

How it gushes and struggles out

From the throat of the overflowing spout.

Across the window pane

It pours and pours;

And swift and wide,

With a muddy tide²,

Like a river down the gutter roars

The rain, the welcome rain³.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was a great friend of the Indians. Even as a student he began to collect Indian folklore. But it was some 30 years after he had graduated from the university that he was able to finally complete his epic poem The Song of Hiawatha [' паю' WD9a] — the only epic poem in American literature in which the manner of life and the beliefs of the Indian people are described. The Song of Hiawatha appeared in 1855. It made the name of Longfellow famous all over the world.

Henry Longfellow knew twelve foreign languages, as well as an­cient Greek, Latin, Gothic, Hebrew, old French and old German.

¹ fiery street — пылающая, то есть накаленная солнцем улица

² a muddy tide — грязный поток

³ the welcome rain — желанный дождь

Vocabulary

anthology [aen'Grjbcfoi] n антология appointment [a'pointmgnt] л назначение aptitude ['a?ptitju:d] л способность bay [bei] л лай

bloodhound ['bUdhaund] л ищейка brace [breis] л скоба bust [bASt] л бюст clatter ['klaets] v стучать condemn [ksn'dem] v осуждать crouch [krautj] v припасть к земле dart [da:t] v стремительно проноситься exulting [ig'zAltin] а ликующий garner ['да:пэ] v ссыпать зерно в ам­бар grasp [gra:sp] v сжимать gush [ддЛ улиться

Hebrew ['hi:bru:] а древнееврейский hoof [hu:f] л копыто hook [huk] л серп keelson ['kelsn] л мор. кильсон loir [1еэ] л логовище livery [Чгуэп] л наряд

mangle ['maerjgl] v калечить

model ['modal] v создавать по образцу

morass [nw'raes] n трясина

overseer ['auvssia] n надзиратель

print [print] n издание

quake [kweik] утрястись

rage [reidj] v быть в гневе

reap [ri:p] v жать

rudder ['ш!э] л руль

shroud [fraud] v скрываться

spout [spaut] л водосточная труба

spur [sp3:] л подпорка

steadily ['stedili] adv постоянно

stemson ['stemssn] л мор. стемсон

supreme [sju:'pri:m] а высший

tangled ['taerjgld] а спутанный

tramp [traemp] л топот

turf [t3:f] л торф

urgent Гз:дэпГ] о насущный

vision ['угзэп] п видение

weary ['wign] а усталый

whip [wip] усечь

The Song of Hiawatha

America had no ancient folk-songs similar to the great epic of other nations. Longfellow made a study of European poetry and chose the Finnish epic poem Kalevala as his model for the epic poem he was to write. The second source of his poem was Indian folklore. Already at college he had read much about the Indian nation, their history, manners and customs, on the basis of which he wrote his epic poem The Song of Hiawatha.

The poem relates of the Indian warrior hero, Hiawatha, partly a legendary, partly a historic personality. According to a North American Indian legend, the hero was sent by the Great Spirit Manito to unite the various Indian tribes.

Hiawatha was born of the daughter of a Star Wenonah {, we' пэипэ] and the West Wind, Mudjekeewis [^тлёзэ'кшв]. After his mother's death, the boy grows up in the wigwam of Nakomis [na'kaurms], his grandmother, the daughter of the Moon. The young Hiawatha learns all the arts and the skills of the Indians and comes to know all the secrets of nature. He learns the language of the birds and animals and calls them "Hiawatha's brothers". He grows into the youth of unusual strength, swiftness and cleverness.

Then the little Hiawatha Learned their names and all their secrets, How they built their nests in Summer, Where they hid themselves in Winter, Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's Chickens", Of all beasts he learned the language, Learned their names and all their secrets, How the beavers built their lodges, Where the squirrels hid their acorns, How the reindeer ran so swiftly, Why the rabbit was so timid, Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's Brothers".

Out of childhood into manhood

Now had grown my Hiawatha,

Skilled in all the craft of hunters,

Learned in all the lore¹ of old men,

In all youthful sports and pastimes,

In all manly arts and labors.

Swift of foot was Hiawatha;

He could shoot an arrow from him,

And run forward with such fleetness²,

That the arrow fell behind him!

Strong of arm was Hiawatha;

He could shoot ten arrows upward,

Shoot them with such strength and swiftness,

That the tenth had left the bow-string

Ere³ the first to earth had fallen.

He had mitens, Minjekahwun,

Magic mittens made of deer-skin;

When upon his hands he wore them,

He could smite the rocks as under,

He could grind them into powder,

He had moccasins enchanted,

Magic moccasins of deer-skin,

When he bound them round his ankles,

When upon his feet he tied them,

At each stride a mile he measured!

When Hiawatha learns, how his father deserted his mother, he decides to punish him. In the land of the West Wind, he and Mudje­keewis fight for three days. Being a god, Mudjekeewis is immortal. However, he acknowledges Hiawatha's courage and nobility and sends him to the earth to fight evil, to do deeds of valour and unite the Indian peoples. On his way Hiawatha stops in the land of Dako-tahs [da'kautsz] and meets a lovely girl, the daughter of the arrow maker, Minnehaha ['ттэ'ЬлЬл], and takes her home as his bride.

¹ lore — знания

² fleetness — быстрота

³ Ere [еэ] — поэт, до, перед

Among Hiawatha's heroic deeds is the defeat of Mondamin [man'dcumm], the Corn Spirit, whose death teaches Hiawatha and his people how to grow maize. Together with his good friends, Chibiabos ['tfaibfeibas], "the best of all musicians and the sweetest of all singers", and Kwasind fkwrxzmd], "the strongest of all mor­tals", Hiawatha kills Pearl-Feather, who brings death and diseases on the Indians, clears the rivers and streams, so that his people can sail on them in safety, teaches them to follow trail, collect herbs and use medicine. "Buried is the war-club", peace rules among the Indian tribes, and happy days follow in the Ojibway land. Hia­watha and Minnehaha have a gay wedding party at which the guests relate stories and legends, and the reader learns of many interesting Indian customs.

Then evil times come to the Indians. Chibiabos perishes, breaking through the ice into a lake. Strong Kwasind, too, is killed by the evil dwarfs who conquer him using the cone of the blue fir-tree. With winter, the famine and fever come. Hungry are the women and the children.

О the long and dreary Winter!

О the cold and cruel Winter!

Ever thicker, thicker, thicker

Froze the ice on lake and river,

Ever deeper, deeper, deeper

Fell the snow o'er all the landscape,

Fell the covering snow, and drifted

Through the forest, round the village.

Hardly from his buried wigwam

Could the hunter force a passage;

With his mittens and his snow-shoes

Vainly walked he through the forest,

Sought for bird or beast and found none,

Saw no track of deer or rabbit,

In the snow beheld no footprints,

In the ghastly, gleaming forest

Fell, and could not rise from weakness,

Perished there from cold and hunger.

О the famine and the fever!

О the wasting of the famine!

О the blasting of the fever!

О the wailing of the children!

О the anguish of the women!

All the earth was sick and famished,

Hungry was the air around them,

Hungry was the sky above them,

And the hungry stars in heaven

Like the eyes of wolves glared at them!

Minnehaha dies of starvation. Hiawatha sails to rule over the land of the Northwest wind.

At a time, when the Indians were considered a lower race, Longfellow managed to show the beauty of their character, their valour, their closeness to nature, the charm of their customs and legends.

The Songs of Hiawatha was translated into many European languages. The Russian translation was made by I. A. Bunin. The originality and novelty of its literary form, the unknown poetic world of Indian folklore surprised everyone and attracted world attention.

Vocabulary

ghastly ['ga:sth] а мрачный grind [gramd] v (ground) молоть herb [пз:Ь] п трава lodge [ЬсЭД п хатка (бобра) maize [meiz] n кукуруза nobility [nsu'biliti] n благородство seek [si:k] v (sought) искать similar ['simils] а подобный, похожий smite [smart] v разбить sought [so:t] past и р. р. от seek source [so:s] n источник stride [straid] n шаг valour ['vasls] n доблесть

acknowledge [эк'поЬф] v признавать

acorn ['eiko:n] n желудь

ankle ['aenkl] n лодыжка

asunder [s'sAnda] adv на куски

beaver ['bi:va] n бобер

beheld [bi'held] past и р. р. от behold

behold [bi'hauld] v (beheld) смотреть

bow-string [baustnn] n тетива

craft [kra:ft] n ремесло

drift [drift] v плыть

dwarf [dwo:f] n карлик

enchant [m'tfaint] v заколдовывать

famine ['faemm] n голод

famished ['faemift) а изголодавшийся

Questions and Tasks

1. Where was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow born?

2. What played a great role in the life of young Longfellow?

3. Where was Longfellow educated?

4. When did he write his first verses and stories?

5. What career did Longfellow dream of?

6. What did he begin doing on his graduation from Bowdoin College?

7. What was Longfellow's first book?

8. Name his other notable works published from 1839 to 1841.

9. What theme did he touch upon in his collection of verses Poems on Slavery?

10. Retell the contents on the poems The Slave's Dream and The Negro in the Dismal Swamp.

11. Comment on Longfellow's poem The Building of the Ship.

12. Dwell on his lyrics about nature.

13. Speak on the subject of Longfellow's masterpiece The Song of Hiawatha.

14. Retell in your own words The Song of Hiawatha.

15. What is the importance of Longfellow's work as a translator?

16. What was his contribution of American literature?

17. Prove that by the end of his life Longfellow had won recognition all over the world.

American Literature

in the Second Half

of the 19th centurv and

the Beginning of the 20th century

Towards the middle of the 19th century the romantic trend in American literature gave way to new, realistic forms. Critical re­alism as a trend in American literature developed after the Civil War. The critical realistic literature differed greatly from that of the previous writers such as Irving, Cooper and Longfellow.

The romanticists wrote their stories about ideal individuals through which they showed their emotions. The realists under­stood that the people should be shown as a whole. They saw man on the background of social conflicts of the day and explained human feelings in relation to this background.

Among the most outstanding American realists in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were Mark Twain, O. Henry and Jack London.

Mark Twain depicted common American people with great sympathy and humour. At the same time he cruelly condemned hypocrisy, bigotry and greed.

Jack London and O. Henry created typical characters of the American common people — farmers, workers, intellectuals. They revealed the truth of American life in their works.

American critical realism developed in contact with European realism. The works of Balzac [ 'Ьгекэк], Gogol, Turgenev and Tol­stoy influenced it greatly. But American realism enriched world re­alism by introducing such problems as social injustice and Negro and Indian questions. American writers using the methods of criti­cal realism created great works of art.

Vocabulary

background ['baekgraund] n фон relation [n'leifan] n отношение

bigotry ['bigstn] n фанатизм in relation относительно

reveal [n'vi:l] vразоблачать

Questions and Tasks

1. When did the romantic trend in American literature give way to realistic forms? *

2. How did the critical realistic literature differ from that of the romanticists?

3. Name the most outstanding American realists in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

4. Comment on the works of Mark Twain, Jack London and O. Henry.

5. The works of what writers influenced the development of American critical realism?

6. What problems were introduced by American critical realism?

7. Did it enrich world literature? Why?

Mark Twain (1835-1910)

Mark Twain [twem] is the pen-name of the Samuel Langhorne Clemens, one of the greatest representatives of American critical realism of the second half of the 19th century. He is known as a great humorist and satirist.

Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born on November 30, 1835 in a lawyer's family in a very small town called Florida in Missouri. The family soon moved to Hannibal on the banks of the Mississippi River and there Samuel Clemens spent his boyhood.

When Samuel was twelve, his father died
and the boy had to earn his own living. He
changed several professions: he was a type­
setter in a district newspaper, a printer and
journalist in the office of the Haimibcd Jour­
nal. While Samuel Clemens was a printer, ^{Mark Twain}
he began to write for newspapers, sending travel letters to them.

New Orleans during Twain's time

In April 1857, while on the way from Cincinnati to New Orle­ans, Clemens apprenticed himself as a river pilot on board a Mis­sissippi steamboat. It was one of Sam Clemens's dreams as a boy to pilot a steamboat. He was licensed two years later and continued in that profession until the Civil War closed the river (1861). It was at this period of his life that he made his first attempt at literature having written a number of sketches based on his experiences as a

pilot. He signed his articles Mark Twain, i. e. "sounding two", a term used by the sailors to show a depth of the river. That meant the depth was two fathoms (12 feet), and that it was safe for the boat to move ahead (twain = two).

The breaking out of the Civil War stopped the traffic on the Mississippi and Clemens was out of job. His brother had been appointed as Secretary to the Governor of the State of Nevada, and Sam decided to go with him.

Twain loved to wear his Oxford robes

About this time silver had been found in Nevada, and a lot of fortune-seekers went to this area. Sam decided to try his luck too. He spent six years in Nevada, digging gold. He found no silver. On rainy days when the mines stopped working Sam wrote sketches which were published in the Territorial Enterprise, a daily paper of Virginia City. It was while working for the Enterprise that Clemens's career as a journalist really began. Here the writer's pen-name appeared for the first time.

In 1864 Twain went to San Francisco where he worked for the Golden Era and the Californian newspapers.

Here Mark Twain began to write sketches and stories. In 1865 Mark Twain won national fame with his story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.

In 1866 A/fa California proposed Mark Twain to write a series of letters, and he went to Europe for the first time. Thus a series of letters was written as Mark Twain's first important book The In­nocents Abroad (1869) — a tale of a tour in Europe and the East made by a group of Americans on board a steamer. The work was a great success. It is very interesting because Europe's scenes and customs are viewed through the eyes of an "innocent" Amer­ican. After that Mark Twain got the reputation of the most fa­mous American humourist.

Before the book appeared Mark Twain had met Olivia Lang-don, whom he married in 1870. In October 1871 Mark Twain moved to Hartford which remained his home for the happiest years of his life. The years 1874 to 1885 were very productive. In that period he

published the following works: The Guilded Age (1874), The Adven­tures of Tom Sawyer (1876), A Tramp Abroad (1880), The Prince and the Pauper (1882) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885).

In 1889 Mark Twain wrote A Connecticut Yankee in the Court of King Arthur. It is a biting satire on the political and social system of day against the background of a fantastic plot placed in England of the 6th century.

Mark Twain went abroad several times and visited different parts of the world. Three honorary degrees were given to Mark Twain by American universities, and in 1907 Oxford University in England gave him an honorary Doctorate of Letters¹. His last novel The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg was published in 1899. Mark Twain attacks the hypocrisy and corruption of contemporary bourgeois society in it.

In the last years of his life Mark Twain wrote several political articles and pamphlets. Till his dying day Mark Twain did not stop his literary activities and continued working on his Autobiography.

Vocabulary

biting ['baitirj] а острый innocent ['mssant] л-простак

corruption [кэ'глр/эп] п моральное раз- license flaisans] v давать разрешение

ложение sound [saund] v измерять глубину воды
fathom [ Тзебэт] л морская сажень (лотом)

(=6 футам) (для измерения глуби- typesetter ftaipsets] л полигр. наборщик

ны воды) view [vju:] v рассматривать

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