The notion of transitivity

The problem of voice is closely connected with the problem of transitive and intransitive verbs. A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning (e.g.: to know sb/sth, to see sb/ sth). But many transitive verbs may be used absolutely, i.e. without indicating the direct object [Ganshina, Vasilevskaya 1964: 130-131]. One of the peculiarities of English is that one and the same verb may be both transitive and intransitive depending on the meaning it conveys. Cf.: The shop closed ÷ The boy closed the door. Nowadays it is recognized by the majority of grammarians that transitivity is not itself a voice. The essential point is not transitivity, but the objective character of the verb that makes it possible for the verb to be employed in a passive construction.

In this respect the classification of passive constructions developed my M. Joos is of a certain interest as it is based on the syntactic potential of the verb and takes into account the role of the passive in structuring utterance situations based on subject – object relations. He divides passive constructions into primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary passive occurs when the subject designates the victim of an action (His morals have been contaminated by bad companions). The object of the passive construction with the preposition by has the role of an agent if animate (The book has been read twice by him), or an instrument if inanimate (The window was broken with a hammer). The primary passive construction is used with transitive verbs capable of taking a direct object. Secondary passive is used in that case when in the corresponding active not the victim but another entity is indicated (I was given a present by him, I have been offered a new job). The semantic role of the passive subject is that of the beneficiary, the one who benefits from the action. The verbs involved in secondary passive constructions represent a three-place predicate: I (1) gave him (2) a book (3). Tertiary passives occur with some intransitive verbs that cannot admit either primary or secondary passive. With tertiary passive the prepositional object (or adverbial) is transformed into the subject of the passive construction (The room has not been lived in, The land has never been worked on, I was being made a fool of). In these constructions the agent is not mentioned, it is implied. Tertiary passive embraces constructions with fixed prepositions attached to the verb (The doctor has been telephoned for, He was laughed at, Objections to the plan will be listened to, etc.) [Хлебникова 2001: 115-116].

Ø Recommended literature:

1. Бархударов Л.С. Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1975. – С. 108-113.
2. Блох М.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике английского языка / М.Я. Блох, Т.Н. Семенова, С.В. Тимофеева. – М.: Высшая школа, 2004. – С. 170, 190-193, 204-205.
3. Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 2008. – С. 191-201.
4. Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В.В., Почепцов Г.Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1981. – С. 74-80.
5. Ильиш Б.А. Строй современного английского языка. – Л.: Просвещение, 1971. – С. 114-122.
6. Иофик Л.Л., Чахоян Л.П., Поспелова А.Г. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике английского языка. – Л.: Изд-во «Просвещение», 1981. – С. 67, 76-82.
7. Кобрина Н.А. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка: Учебное пособие / Н.А. Кобрина, Н.Н. Болдырев, А.А. Худяков. – М.: Высшая школа, 2007. – С. 91-107.

Ø Supplementary literature:

1. Аракин В.Д.Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков. – М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2000. – С. 129-132.
2. Гуревич В.В. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2003. – С. 25-30.
3. Ильиш Б.А. Современный английский язык. Теоретический курс. – М.: Издательство литературы на иностранных языках, 1948. – С. 191-195.

4. Мурясов Р.З. Типология глагола в разноструктурных языках. – Уфа: РИЦ БашГУ, 2011. – 115-147.

1. Смирницкий А.И.Морфология английского языка. – М.: Изд-во литературы на иностранных языках, 1959. – С. 257-274.
2. Хлебникова И.Б. Основы английской морфологии. – М.: «ЧеРо», 2001. – С. 11-117.
3. Штелинг Д.А. Грамматическая семантика английского языка. Фактор человека в языке. – М.: МГИМИ, ЧеРо, 1996. – С. 166-179.
4. Valeika L., Buitkiene J. An Introductory Course in Theoretical English grammar. – Vilnius, 2003. – P. 93-97.

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