David Truman

In process of specialisation of various public spheres in society automatically there are the groups of interests which are one of the basic channels of political activity of citizens.

NOT STATE POLITICAL INSTITUTES

I. In the beginning of the XXI-st century activity of parties, groups of interests (trade unions) and social movements (civil initiatives) along with the state is perceived in democratic societies as the integral and natural component of the world of a policy. And after all still recently, that is 100-200 years ago, in the majority of the countries not state political organisations have been forbidden or were on illegal position. Through the period of interdictions and secret, informal existence in the past have passed hardly probable not all types of public associations - from parties to Masonic lodges and from trade unions before anti-war movements.

The beginnings of the modern approach to understanding of groups of interests are developed by the classic of the American political science Arthur Bentley (1870-1957) in the book "Managerial process" (1908). In it the author has considered a special filosofsko-sociological way of consideration of political life, some kind of philosophy of group pressure according to which the policy does not exist at all without group activity. The macropolicy, on Bentley, consists not of the state and its structures, and from “a primary matter of struggling political groups”. Groups of interests in the modern politological literature are defined as mainly the voluntary associations adapted or specially created by people for expression and upholding of imperiously significant interests in relations with the state, and also with other political institutes.

Groups of interests on character of their activity are divided on one-target (they develop for achievement of one purpose) and multi-purpose (whose activity is not limited by specificity of separate problems). The French political scientist Moris Djuverzhe allocated special (engaged only with political activity) and partial (carrying out more a wide range of the social functions connected with the organisation of business, etc.) of group of interests. From the point of view of their number Thomas Daj and Harman Zigler allocate the mass groups, capable to achieve symbolical success, and also the small groupings capable thanks to the unity persistently to achieve of the purposes and “to exhaust contenders”.

For a designation of group of interests other terms, in particular, pressure group, a lobby, the union are used also. The term pressure group has appeared for the first time in the USA approximately in the mid-twenties XX century, and early studies of activity of these associations concern to 1928-1929 Originally the characteristic of groups of pressure has been connected with specific ways of performance by them of the functions. So, Rozhe-Zherar Shvartsenberg specifies that they were considered as the organisations created for protection of interests and rendering of pressure upon the public authorities on purpose to achieve acceptance of such decisions which corresponded to their interests. Activity of such groups, in its opinion, is not simply pressure upon the power from above, sideways or from below, and the mechanism of the hierarchical coordination of decisions, redistributions of the power by the conclusion of transactions between бюрократиями and not numerous exclusive groups. As underlines With. Файер, associations of this sort of citizens aspire to have purposeful influence on political process, but thus do not apply for direct participation in government, thereby avoiding any political responsibility for the actions. It is possible to carry to features of actions of groups of pressure and that they are active basically only in acceptance sphere (executive or legislative) decisions.

The variety of groups of interests in the modern world complicates them типологизацию. It is the most easier to spend it on distinction of so-called steams-antagonists: material - spiritual, public - private, formal - the informal etc. Certain recognition of political scientists was received by the classification offered by Ulrihom a background by Alemanom in the late eighties:

- The organised interests in economy and a professional life: enterprise associations and associations of independent workers, trade unions, the consumer unions;

- Groups of interests in social sphere: associations on protection of the social rights (a society blind), associations of social achievements (welfare funds), self-help groups (on narcotism opposition etc.);

- Group interests in the field of leisure: sports clubs, clubs for dialogue and hobby realisation;

- The organised interests in spheres of religion, a science and culture (church, sect, scientific associations, general educational mugs, clubs on art);

- Groups of interests on political activity: spiritual, ethical, remedial associations, political associations - ecological, feministic, movements in support of national minorities etc.

II. Activity of groups of pressure quite often is called as lobbyism (from English lobby - a lobby, a lobby, a corridor). In modern political language this term means a way of the decision of those or other questions, including political, in favour of someone's interests by influence on legislators, government officials and other officials; activity of the social groups defending the political interests.

In the Dictionary of English language of 1553 of a lobby the walking platform in a monastery where monks discussed theological questions was called. One century later so began to name a premise for walks in the House of Commons of English parliament. But political value is a word has got even two centuries later when in 1864 the term "lobbying" has started to designate purchase for money of voices of deputies in the Congress of the USA. Since 1946 lobbyism is registered and is in this country under control of state structures. Contrary to ordinary representations, lobbyism - not only secret payoff, but also argument system, the mechanism of preparation and acceptance of socially constructive certificates. Lobbyism as the multistage phenomenon is crowned with the politician (or group of politicians), offering or carrying out decisions; The middle is made by many thousands group of experts, advisers, executors, often it there are officials and statesmen, professional lawyers, experts in public opinion etc. the Basis - this or that social, political, ethnic and any other group, movement. The state managed a number of mechanisms of lobbyism to take under the control, but the nature of this social phenomenon excludes full possibility of such control.

Lobbyism is always rigidly connected with the political power. It is possible to deduce law: it is more than it there where the power is most real. The most powerful “pressure groups” also are the actual power which is not simply influencing, but supervising the finance, shots, the press, process of acceptance of the state decisions. In it their difference from the power formal - political institutes and policy makers in their traditional understanding as the persons only representing and sounding (at the best - personifying) the power, making formal certificates of discussion, the coordination and vising of already accepted decisions, maintenance of legal fastening, легитимации decisions of the actual power. Even the presidents formally depending on voters, instead of from lobbist clans, quite often a little that can undertake without the coordination of the intentions with leaders of the groupings, which proteges they, as a matter of fact and finally, are. Only in transitive societies where traditional groups of pressure are destroyed or weakened, and new have not developed yet, rather independent role of the separate "self-sufficient" person is possible and its charisma can be notable.

III. In Russia lobbyism is carried out in enforcement authorities more often. It is connected by that questions at issue of development of our country legislature for the present dare seldom. Actually it occurs through presidential decrees and the governmental orders which play a dominating role in system of legal regulation and have direct action. In mass-media especially allocate lobbying in Presidential Administration of the Russian Federation where businessmen quite often solved questions with benefit for themselves by skilful “подсовывания” under a presidential hand of preferential decrees. So, the decree of the president of the Russian Federation from December, 6th, 1993 “About maintenance of reliable gas supply of consumers of Russia with joint-stock company Gazprom in 1994-1996” to this enterprise granted clearing of the import customs duties on the equipment, materials and the goods. Under the same decree the means enlisted in fund of stabilisation and development by Russian Open Society "Gazprom" were deduced from under the taxation.

In February, 1995 the Fund of development of parliamentarism in Russia has organised “a round table”, devoted to a problem институционализации lobbyism. In its frameworks the bill of regulation of lobbist activity in Russia was discussed. The order of creation of lobbist structures, their registration, the reporting before authorities became a subject of legal regulation, according to the bill. Accordingly, lobbyists admitted only physical and the legal bodies registered as those, that is the bill extended not on lobbyists in general, but only on those who has when due hereunder obtained the licence for the right to be engaged in lobbist activity. To deputies, officials, civil servants it was forbidden to represent itself as official lobbyists. It is obvious that a wide circle including civilised business, but there were more strongly those who preferred to build the mutual relations with the state objectively have been interested in acceptance of the given bill and lobbyists on old - is reserved and корыстно.

Acceptance any uniform, let and the advanced "civilised" law on lobbist activity hardly is capable to eliminate corruption in corridors of the Russian power. Control mechanisms over this activity should be built in all accepted acts regulating functioning of institutes of political system. A key role in “окультуривании” the given phenomenon in Russia can and “the fourth power” - a free press should play. It is a question that it is necessary to acquaint widely citizens with activity of group interests, regularly to shine a course and results of contacts of representatives of the power and these groups. Lobbyism acts as the democracy companion, therefore from it it will not be possible to leave to any society which will wish to develop on a democratic way. For Russia it means that on a measure вплетения norms and democracy principles in social practice lobbyism will gradually turn to necessary sociopolitical institute.

IV. Parties in comparison with other groups of interests possess considerable specificity. Since Aristotle and till XVII century in parties - then from named факциями - saw “political bodies”, comparable with live organisms the Russian historian Timothy Nikolaevich Granovsky (1813-1855) connected occurrence of parties with Ekaterina Medici's policy. Actually parties of antiquity and the Middle Ages were клиентелами - time associations for support of any persons. Political parties in their modern understanding began to be created to historical measures rather recently. At first in England in 70-80th of XVII century it was generated the Tory party (conservatives) and вигов (liberals). They competed among themselves for influence on the royalty. Political parties in continental Europe appear in the course of parliamentarism formation in XVIII-XIX centuries

In historical origin of parties many thinkers, since T.Gobbs, saw the reason of their occurrence in spirit of the contradiction peculiar to the person. E.Berk wrote that “the party represents the organisation of the people united for the purpose of advancement by joint efforts of national interest, being guided by some specific principle concerning which all of them have come to the consent”. А де Tokvil considered parties as the associations embodying human rights to association with others, as the form of display of its personal liberty. In the end of XIX century the German researcher V.Hasbah considered party as “the union of people with identical political views and the purposes, aspiring to a gain of the political power for the purpose of its use for realisation of own interests”. M.Ja.Ostrogorsky ( 1854-1919 ) has noticed aspiration of parties to submission to itself of all displays of political activity of the person. Марксисты in the doctrine about parties “new type” have seen the main source of updating of political shape of the whole world. Eventually in treatment of parties the approaches accenting organizational aspects of their activity (R.Mihels), inherence of these organisations from the state system (M.Djuverzhe) have prevailed. Giovanni Sartori considers as party any political group participating in elections and capable to spend the candidates for state structures. Joseph Lapalombara (a sort. 1925) recognised that party is any political group which has received the official status, having the formal organisation, connecting the centre with periphery and capable to participate in elections. Jean-Lui Klermonn characterised party as the organised force uniting citizens of one political direction for mobilisation of public opinion in definite purposes, for participation in authorities or for orientation of the authorities to realisation of the requirements. Now it is considered to be that parties were generated as the specialised, organizational ordered group uniting those most active adherents or other purposes (ideologies, leaders) and the employee for struggle for a gain and use of the higher political power.

V. Long history of existence of parties выкристаллизовала internal groups typical for them and associations: party leaders, party bureaucracy, a brain staff, ideologists of party, a party active, rank-and-file members of party and supporters of party. In the event that the party comes to power, in its structure party members - legislators ”and“ party members - members of the government ” are allocated “. The party as between the population and the state carries out a link of vertical communication two groups of functions grasping almost all phases of political process. Formation of the budget of party, management elections, maintenance of discipline of party bureaucracy concern internal functions and member weight etc. External, most important functions of party, reflect its aiming at a gain and power use in interests of group of the population supporting it.

In an ideal the political party purpose consists in representation realisation in political system of those levels of population which interests it expresses. By means of parties the society and the state интегрально incorporate in the indissoluble whole. Here special value has that circumstance that in a modern difficult and advanced society people with the special interests, aspirations, orientations, installations can participate in political life as members of the various unions, associations, parties that allows to speak about possibility of their control over the state and the power. Thereupon parties, connecting a civil society and the state, promote overcoming or softening of the conflicts immanently inherent in these relations. Parties not only do not weaken, and, on the contrary, strengthen the state, strengthening its feedback with a society. So, competitive parties dominating in the liberally-democratic countries operate at two levels. First, each party creates a network of the organisations or the structures penetrating all or the majority of regional and local communities and by that strengthening in them the national beginning. Secondly, the orientation of parties on a competition with each other promotes that the national political system is put over all concrete groupings of officials, irrespective of their rank and position.

VI. The Variety historical and социокультурных conditions of development of the countries and the people has led to occurrence of the various party structures different from each other by a structure, functions, lines of activity. Therefore there is a set of criteria according to which classification of parties is made:

- Under social programs of activity when share on socialist, liberal, communistic, conservative, class, nationalist, religious etc.;

- On the ideological bases of their activity when they act as доктринальные (protection of the ideology), pragmatical (guided by practical actions), charismatic (uniting round the concrete political leader);

- On methods of performance of programs, appearing as revolutionary (societies aspiring to radical qualitative transformation) and reformatory (aimed at improvement of public life without sharp structural changes);

- On character of political actions, acting as reactionary, conservative, moderated, radical, extremist;

- On participation in selected public authorities, being as correcting and oppositional;

- In a place in a political spectrum, it being represented as left, centrist and right;

- On style of dialogue between party leaders and member base, differing as democratic and not democratic;

- On the character of membership dividing them on personnel (differ small number, free membership, organizational friability or discipline), mass (aimed at involving in the numbers as it is possible большего numbers of people);

- On the organizational structure defining them as parliamentary (as primary formations territorial committees act), labour (representing a version of the parliamentary parties supposing collective membership including labour collectives), vanguard (are constructed on principles of democratic centralism and territorial and production association of the members).

VII. Party systems represent set of stable relations and relations of parties of various type with each other, and also with the state and other institutes of the power. To number of the factors, making the greatest impact on formation of party systems, concern: character of social structure of a society; the current legislation, социокультурные traditions. Depending on character of an interparty competition the maintenance of party systems is formed under influence:

- смычек this or that type, that is short-term associations of parties for the decision of strictly certain problems when the leading role is incurred by party elite, and opinion of rank-and-file members are not considered;

Blocks, that is the hierarchical unions in which four kinds of partners co-operate:

The predominant forces imposing all rest base interests;

The parties of the second plan entering into blocks on the terms of predominant forces;

The parties-relays even more dependent on the basic players in the block;

Supernumeraries, to whose interests in the block practically do not pay attention;

- Coalitions, that is the long-term associations generated on the basis of rational representations about possibilities of partners to provide a prize and assuming equal relations of all participants.

It is necessary to underline that on number of parties operating in the countries political scientists allocate following party systems:

One-party in their despotic and democratic versions. Absence in such system of political rivalry has given Z.Nojmannu's grounds to consider that in a society it is impossible to consider one party as party in true sense of this term as etymology of a word "party" demands its correlation with other "parts";

полуторапартийные, that is in them the coalition consisting of dominating party and close it on sights, but less popular and influential organisation operates;

Two-party - with two rather equal on popularity and влиятельности competing parties, each of which is capable to win on elections the majority of places in Legislative Assemblies or to receive a majority of votes on executive power elections;

Two and a half party in which presence of two authoritative parties is combined with activity intermediary, but simultaneously the alternative organisation playing a role of the "third" force;

Multi-party systems with number more than three parties struggling for the power, each of which, nevertheless, is not capable to win support of the majority of voters. They are typical for the parliamentary forms of government and in most cases have the result the coalition governments or the cabinets.

VIII. For Russia essential features of party building are characteristic: the parties creation has begun considerably later, than in countries of Western Europe; their formation has begun with working class associations while parties of tops of ruling estates began to be created only in the course of the first Russian revolution, after the edition of the imperial Manifesto on October, 17th, 1905 Russian multi-party system developed not for long, approximately till summer of 1918, then has interrupted almost for 70 years.

Development of modern party system has passed some stages in Russia:

- Occurrence of informal public organisations (1986 - 1988);

- A stage of action of popular fronts and party structures (1988 - 1989);

- The first wave of formation of parties (in 1990 has arisen LDPR, a democratic platform in the CPSU, in 1991 the People party of free Russia has been founded);

- The second wave of party building (in 1991 - 1993 have arisen Party of economic freedom, consolidation Party, the Peasants party, etc.);

- ломка systems of protoparties and formation of new political parties - ПРЕС, the block “Choice of Russia”, "Apple" (1993 - 1995);

- The period of extensive development of the multi-party system which subjects compete not for a power gain, and for deputy mandates in parliament (1995 - 2000);

- The period of purposeful efforts of power structures on creation of this or that updating of system of several large parties (2000 - on the present).

Present multi-party system in the Russian Federation is rather original. As neither the parliamentary majority, nor a parliamentary coalition do not possess the right of formation of the government, struggle of parties on elections and elections lose the basic sense by which they are allocated in modern representative democracies. Elections in the State Duma of the fourth convocation in December, 2003 have brought a victory of party “United Russia“ which has provided to itself under party lists idle time, and for the account одномандатников - and the constitutional majority. 5 % - ный a boundary were overcome by two more parties - the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and LDPR, and also block "Native land". Out of parliament there were both applying for participation in liberalism of party - "Apple" and “the Union of the right forces”.

Дата добавления: 2014-01-04