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Theme 11. Elections

I. Essence of communications as political process.Formation and functioning in sphere of the public power of various ideologies, values, symbols, doctrines, official norms and opposition views of various actors make special political process. Its essence consists that at the expense of transfer and an exchange of messages political subjects let know about themselves and come into necessary contacts and communications with the various counterparts, allowing them to play various political roles. Those data which get out people for preparation and acceptance of necessary decisions in government sphere, are called as the political information.

The River-. Шварценберг

Political communications - process of transfer of the political information by means of which the information circulates between various elements of political system, and also between political and social systems. Information interchange continuous process is carried out both between individuals, and between operating and operated for the purpose of consent achievement.

The information is for the political phenomena the same basic property, as substance and energy. As a result of its presence or absence the subject can find or lose the power, influence, possibility to realise the interests. Owing to that people differently perceive the information, interpreting its maintenance on the basis of certain rules, habits, ways of perception, in the course of information interchange basic value has ability of the subject intelligently to perceive messages. The given aspect субъективированного perceptions, interpretations, information mastering is called as communications or process in which operate the sender - a communicator and the addressee - the recipient. Communication aspects of information communications show that the exchange of messages is not faceless technical process which can ignore features of recipients as real participants of political relations, the information for the last - only the precondition, but not the factor of political actions. It is possible to assert that from the point of view of consumption and an exchange of people of various data in sphere of the public power all institutes and power mechanisms are not than other, as means of processing of information streams and rather independent structures in the information market. The policy considered from the point of view of information-communicative communications, represents social whole, structures and which institutes are intended for development, reception and processing of the information causing realisation by political subjects of the political roles and functions.

II. Theoretical treatments of information-communicative processes. For the first time the political system as information-communicative system was presented by K.Dojch. Developing this approach, J.Habermas placed emphasis on communicative actions and corresponding elements of a policy (values, the norms, training actions), representing them as a basis of a social and political order. G.Shelski, on the contrary, has formulated thereupon idea of "the technical state”, having put in the forefront not social, but technical aspects of the political organisation of the power. In that case the state should follow only in small degree to will and interests of separate citizens and groups since by its reference point and simultaneously means the logic of modern technics, its requirements having imperative character should be considered.

Modern experience of development of political systems has really shown certain tendencies of growth of a role of tehniko-communication means in the organisation of political life, first of all in industrially developed countries. However they can be treated only as the preconditions expanding possibilities of institutes and subjects of the power for maneuver as do not eliminate the leading part of political interests of groups, conflicts and contradictions between them. Basically in political science three basic ways of political communications - through informal contacts, the political organisations and mass media, - operating incentive (the order, the order), actually information (real or invented data) actual (the data connected with an establishment and maintenance of contact between subjects politicians) by types of political messages are allocated.

The information-communicative process binding together political sphere of a society, has the features depending on that, it is shown in processes interpersonal общений, group or mass communication. For a policy mass information-communicative processes have paramount value. At this level of the organisation of information relations the political agents specially prepared for interaction with public opinion, first of all, operate. As a rule, to them carry official structures of the state, the state, independent and oppositional mass media (mass-media), corporate structures (bodies of parties, public associations, professional political advertising agencies, etc.). Interaction of these agents forms the information market on which each of them carries out own political strategy, subordinated to achievement of the interests in power sphere. The variety of actions of agents in the information market can be reduced to two types: mobilisation, including propaganda and propagation, and marketing, presented by methods паблик рилейшнз or PR, and also political advertising.

These ways of information interaction characterise different, quite often opposite methods of behaviour of subjects in information field. So, propaganda and propagation represent ways of information control over people and giving to their political actions of a strict social orientation. Basically without use of agitation and propaganda ways of influence on public opinion any state, any political subject interested in expansion of social support of the purposes concerning the power cannot manage. Practice shows that during such influence can use misinformation receptions (a direct deceit), methods индоктринации (violent imposing to the person of in advance programmed estimations and judgements, psychological pressure thereupon on its consciousness), that is the styles of dialogue completely ignoring freedom of the person and its right to development of own political convictions.

Contrary to such receptions of a gain of consciousness of the person, marketing strategy are formed according to supply and demand relations on the information and directed on that the information necessary for the subject in due time and in a proper place has appeared at its order. Marketing strategy of informing are directed on belief of the person, instead of on control of its consciousness, they tempt more likely, rather than is directive order those or other forms of behaviour. They are guided mainly by feedback, dialogue, fair and mutually valid informing by political subjects of counterparts on the purposes and problems. Such line of conduct in the information market inseparably linked with preliminary explanation of information requirements of the person and with its confidential informing that, finally, is directed on the realised choice of the form of its political participation.

III. Mass-media in mass communication system. The major tool of realisation of political strategy in the information market are mass media. In 1840, probably, having a presentiment of their future political influence, О де Balzac named for the first time the press “the fourth power”. And already a century later, with transformation of electronic mass-media, first of all television, in the integral element of a political discourse, the main tool of carrying out of election campaigns, this social mechanism has turned to the most powerful political institute which literally has changed system parametres of the public power. Mass-media represent the establishments created for open, public program by means of special technical toolkit of various data to any persons.

The role of mass-media in the politician cannot be estimated unequivocally. Depending on in what hands there is the press, a radio and television, they can be used as for objective and operative informing of people on real events in the world, their education and education, and a manipulation in those interests or other groups. Still G.Lasuell has allocated following four basic functions of mass-media:

- Supervision over the world (gathering and information distribution);

- "Editing" (selection and information commenting);

- Public opinion formation;

- Dissemination of culture.

“To have the important information, - authors of the modern German grant on political science write, - means to have the power; to be able to distinguish the important information from not the important means to possess still большей the power; possibility to extend the important information in own direction or to hold back it means to have the double power”.

From the politological point of view the most important differentiation of mass-media is their division on governmental, oppositional and independent. In the general plan such structure shows that in such information field there is no monopolism, in it the forces purposely discrediting and weakening influence on weights of authorities can operate. The public opinion here faces not with unidirectional, and with разнонаправленными information streams, developing the estimations and approaches in ideologically competitive environment. In the conditions of pluralism of the information the main criterion of success and a condition of a survival of the majority of mass-media is the attention of public. To draw this attention, mass media at a choice to those of publications and transfers usually are guided by following general principles:

- приоритетность, importance (valid and imaginary) and appeal of a theme to citizens - war and peace, terrorism, ecological and other accidents, scandals;

- Eccentricity of the facts that means domination in mass-media of the information on extreme events - the hunger, unusual murders, any the negative phenomena;

- Novelty of the facts, that is the messages which yet have not received a wide public resonance and if they are not present, also their inventing;

- Political successes of leaders, a cult of stars in the politician, art, sports that is usual for mass-media in the conditions of the market;

- The high public status of those who gets on pages of newspapers or screens of TVs as it provides шиоркую audience reading, listening, looking.

IV. The Political manipulation and ways of its restriction. The greatest danger to citizens and the democratic device of the state is represented by use of mass-media for a political manipulation - the latent management of political consciousness and behaviour of people on purpose to force them to operate (or to stay idle) contrary to own interests. The manipulation is based, as a rule, on lie and a deceit covering mercenary actions. Myths make the base of all illusory picture of the world created by manipulators. So, as bearing designs of communistic system of a manipulation myths about a private property as about the main source of social harm, about inevitability of crash of capitalism and a communism celebration, about a supervising role of working class and its communist party etc. acted

According to professor Herbert Schiller, in the USA there are five main myths, serving domination of ruling elite:

About individual freedom and a personal choice of citizens;

About a neutrality of the major political institutes - the congress, court and the presidential power, and also mass-media;

About an invariance of egoistical human nature, its aggression, propensity to moneymaking and потребительству;

About absence in the American society of social conflicts, operation and oppression;

About pluralism of mass-media which are actually supervised by large advertisers, corporations, the government, representing the uniform industry of support and reproduction of illusory consciousness.

Gluing of labels, distortion of the facts, importunate advertising - only a small part of the means used by mass-media for deception of public opinion.

Minimisation of handling possibilities of mass-media is usually observed in societies where there is a valid pluralism of mass media and where behind them public control is established. In the majority of the countries of the world there are special bodies of the general control for the mass-media which are watching for observance by them этическимх and rules of law. So, in France such instance is the High council behind audiovisual communications. Democratic control in this case has not something in common with preliminary censorship, is not infringement of a freedom of speech and expression of opinions. Information, political and any other freedom of one people demands restriction when it breaks freedom and the rights of other citizens and the whole states. The information power, like the power political and economic, needs control from a society.

Character of mutual relations of the mass media applying for a role “an eye and society ears”, and the governments varies from the country to the country. The majority of bodies of the mass information prefers to underline the independence of the state, state-political institutes. Their relations can develop according to disputed, консенсусной or konfliktno-konsensusnoj models. So, in the open conflict friction between the government M.Thatcher to England and mass-media have poured out during the Falkland war when to journalists access to war zones has been closed, and the Ministry of Defence used practice of their frank misinformation. At the same time such mutual relations arise seldom as mass-media are interested in access to the state sources of the information, and the governments are always interested in public легитимации by means of mass media.

It is necessary to consider also that the western developed states are the largest manufacturers of the information. So, the government of the USA is included into number 20 of the best advertising agencies of the country, competing under expenses to such huge corporations, as "Coca-Cola". Annual expenses of the government on advertising exceed 200 mln. dollars in this connection Washington has received the ironic name “Hollywood on Potomac”. The governmental agencies spend about 600 mln. dollars in a year for manufacture of films and audiovisual programs. Cost of printed matter of the American government reaches almost 1,5 bln. dollars in a year. Service activity "pablik-rilejshnz" manages to the state in 400 mln. dollars

At all it, arguing on a role which mass-media play to the politician, it is necessary to ascertain: “the fourth power”, without entering an open competition to the first, political, nevertheless expands the positions of the independent player on a political field.

 

1. Concept of a choice and their place of the democratic state.

2. Majority system and proportional systems.

The employment purpose: to analyse essence and value of conflicts in the politician. To show a role of elections in democratic system. Methodical recommendations: the seminar will be constructed in the form of reflexion, conversation.

1. Concept of a choice.

Selective process. Elections make an integral part of political process in modern democratic societies. In the conditions of modern democracies elections - them стрежневой the mechanism. The main form of display of the sovereignty of the people, its political role as power source. They serve also as the major channel of representation in authorities of interests of various public groups. For many, and in some countries and for the majority of citizens elections are the unique form of their real participation in the politician. Elections give to the person going to a big-times politics, possibility to become the deputy of parliament, the governor or even the president of the country. In the politological literature following functions of elections are allocated:

- An articulation and representation of various interests of voters;

- Control over power institutes;

- Integration of various opinions and formation of the general political will;

- легитимация and stabilisation of political system, concrete institutes of the power: parliament, the government, the president etc.;

- Expansion of communications, representation relations between institutes of the power and citizens;

- The water drain, transfer of political conflicts in a peaceful settlement channel;

- Mobilisation of the selective case on the decision of actual public problems;

- Political socialisation of the population, development of its political consciousness and political participation;

- рекрутирование political elite;

- Generating of updating of a society by means of competitive struggle of alternative political programs;

- Formation of effective opposition, its preparation for performance of functions of a political management.

Correspond to the social appointment elections can only in the event that they are based on certain principles. It is possible to allocate two groups of such principles: first, principles of the suffrage, defining the status, position of each citizen on elections; secondly, the general principles of the organisation of elections. Suffrage democratic principles include:

- Generality when all citizens, irrespective of a floor, a racial, national, class and professional accessory, language, level of incomes, riches, formations, faith and political convictions, have active (as the voter) and passive (as the candidate) the right to participation in elections;

- Equality - each voter has only one voice which is estimated equally, irrespective of its accessory to this or that person;

- Secret of elections - the decision of the concrete voter should not be known to someone;

- Direct (direct) voting - the voter makes the decision directly on the concrete candidate on an elective office, votes for the real person.

On the basis of democratic suffrages the principles characterising the organisation of selective process were generated. Such principles concern:

- Freedom of elections assuming, first of all, absence of political, administrative, social and economic, psychological and information pressure upon voters, organizers of elections and candidates;

- Presence of the choice, alternative candidates. The term "elections" assumes selection from various offers;

- Competitiveness, competition of elections. Various political forces should have possibility to struggle for trust of voters on elections, to acquaint and convince them of correctness, advantages of the electoral programme, lacks of electoral platforms of competitors;

- Periodicity and a regularity of elections;

- Equality of possibilities of political parties and candidates. It assumes approximate equality of their material and information resources.

Elections are always carried out in the concrete political environment which in many respects defines their originally democratic or манипулятивный character. This environment (a historical context) includes a number of the parametres reflecting its influence on selective process. Them concern:

- Presence in a society of a valuable consensus. Atmospheres of trust, readiness of political parties, the overwhelming majority of citizens to respect results of elections;

- Respect in the state of human rights. It is necessary that voters and candidates felt free, were not exposed to any threats that in a society there was a respect for will and the majority, and minority;

- Democratic character of registration of voters that means, first of all, absence of any sort дискриминаций;

- Formation of independent, impartial and competent controls by selective process, first of all election committees;

- Presence accessible to all feeders and consideration of complaints, a resolution of disputes, and also effective and independent bodies of control over observance of the selective law by all participants of electoral process.

II. Electoral systems. Technologies used on elections directly depend on an order of elections and ways of counting of votes in each country, operating in the state and rules of law regulating given process, rules and traditions. Set of these norms sets the certain logic to actions of all participants of pre-election struggle, induces them to operate within the limits of a uniform electoral order, gives it quality of an electoral system. The electoral system is a set of rules, receptions and the procedures providing and regulating legitimate formation representative and executive powers of the political power. In spite of the fact that these rules have the specificity practically in each country, there are the general principles, allowing to speak about types of electoral systems. It is accepted to allocate three basic their types - proportional, majority (the absolute and relative majority) and mixed.

The proportional system assumes voting by party lists, division of corresponding deputy mandates to proportionally poll, typed by this or that party on elections. Thus almost in all national legislations there is a barrier (usually it is 5 % of votes) which it is necessary to overcome parties that it has been presented in a legislature. There are two versions of majority systems:

First, a proportional electoral system at nation-wide level when voters vote for political parties in scales of all country, and election districts are not allocated;

Secondly, the proportional system which is based on multimandatory districts when deputy mandates are distributed according to the revealed level of influence in election districts.

Advantages of a proportional electoral system consist that the elite with its help authorities reflect a real picture of political life of a society, arrangement of political forces, provides feedback system between the state and the organisations of a civil society, promotes development of political pluralism and multi-party system. Its lacks too are essential:

At a proportional electoral system there can be difficulties in government formation as absence of dominating party with the accurate and firm program, creation of the multi-party coalitions including parties with the different purposes and various problems cause formation of the astable governments;

The proportional electoral system leads to that, the political forces, not having influence in all country, can receive representation in public authorities;

Because voting occurs not for the concrete candidate, and for parties, the direct connection between deputies and voters can be rather weak;

As at proportional system voting follows political parties, this circumstance establishes strong dependence of deputies on the parties and their management that connects hands to members of parliament and can negatively affect process of discussion and acceptance of important acts.

The majority electoral system is such system at which the winner on elections the candidate who has typed 50 % of voices plus 1 vote admits, taken part in voting (in some countries - from list structure of electorate). At majority system arise and communications between the candidate and voters are consolidated. Candidates, as a rule, well know a state of affairs in the election districts, interests of voters, are personally familiar with their most active representatives. Accordingly, and voters know about the one to whom they trust to express the interests in authorities. At this system on elections candidates of stronger political trend win the country. It promotes replacement from parliament and other authorities of representatives of small and average parties on the value.

The majority system promotes occurrence and strengthening of a tendency to formation in the countries where it is used, two-party or multi-party systems. Its advantages - possibility of formation of effectively working and stable government; allows well organised, large parties it is easy to win elections and to create the one-party governments. Lacks:

The fact of reception by the candidate of a relative majority of votes while the voices given to all other candidates, for attention are not accepted matters only and vanish;

The considerable part of voters of the country remains not presented in parliament;

The party which has received on elections of less voices, than its contenders, can appear presented in parliament the majority of deputy places;

Two parties which have collected identical or close quantity of votes, spend unequal number of candidates to authorities.

The mixed electoral system includes elements of both above-stated systems. In modern Russia half of deputies of the State Duma is selected according to proportional system, other half - majority. The essence of the mixed system consists that the certain part of deputy mandates is distributed according to principles of majority system that should promote formation of the steady government. Other part of mandates is distributed according to principles of a proportional electoral system that promotes the best reflexion of a parity of political forces in the country.

III. Selective process and election campaign. Elections to public authorities always coherently that on a political scene of this or that country various events are developed: pass meetings, meetings, meetings of candidates with voters, political leaders act with critical statements and positive programs in mass-media, in streets there are boards, etc. All variety of the events initiated and created by people on the threshold of and during elections in state structures, it is possible to designate concept “selective process”. At the same time each candidate or the selective block, entering pre-election struggle, aspires to solve own problems and undertakes for this purpose certain efforts.

Spent by it or them election campaign can be defined as set of the actions undertaken by parties, selective associations or candidates and their commands for achievement of their pre-election purposes. Election campaign represents a special kind of political management. As the subject of management in it the command (the party organisation, group of adherents, political advisers) led by the candidate acts, and as object potential voters act. The management purpose is defined by those problems which are put before itself by the candidate (a victory, only "promotion", a gain of a part of voices to weaken chances of a victory of the major candidate etc.). All selective process inherently is competitive process in which course there is a sharp rivalry, fierce struggle between its participants for the right to possess prestigious positions in political hierarchy, for possibility to influence weights, for access to imperious resources.

Depending on time sequence and feature of solved problems, selective process shares on some stages:

- The preparatory stage characterising that political soil from which elections, and also the organizational actions doing possible elections "grow";

- The promotion of candidates which is coming to the end with their registration;

- Agitation and propaganda campaign;

- Voting and behaviour of results of elections.

Election campaign begins, as a rule, with promotion of candidates. This term is applied as under the relation to all state, and separate candidates or parties. In the first case election campaign represents a complex of organizational, political, information and propaganda and propaganda actions for direct maintenance of selective process in the state, in the second case - system of the actions directed on success of the concrete candidate or party.

IV. Selective technologies. Considering election campaign as a version of political process, it is necessary to consider:

First, the initiators of election campaign acting in a role of the subject of management, are deprived the right to dictate "game rule", that is to create norms, obligatory for object of the influence;

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Political communications | Политология как наука и как учебная дисциплина
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