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Тема: Предмет и язык логики

Американская поэзия: обновление традиций. Уолт Уитмен: история создания книги «Листья травы». Космизм мировосприятия Уитмена, его антиэстетика и «языковой эксперимент». Творчество Эмили Дикинсон как осознанно-экспериментальный подход к духовному опыту и языку. Национальные и общечеловеческие мотивы в поэзии Генри Лонгфелло.

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882), American poet, one of the most popular and celebrated poets of his time. Born in Portland, Maine (then in Massachusetts), Longfellow was educated at Bowdoin College. After graduating in 1825 he traveled in Europe in preparation for a teaching career. He taught modern languages at Bowdoin from 1829 to 1835. In late 1835, during a second trip to Europe, Longfellow's wife, Mary Storer Potter, died in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Longfellow returned to the United States in 1836 and began teaching at Harvard University. In 1843 he remarried, to Fanny Appleton.

After retiring from Harvard in 1854, Longfellow devoted himself exclusively to writing. He was devastated when in 1861 his second wife was burned to death in a household accident. He commemorated her shortly before his own death with the sonnet “The Cross of Snow” (1879). In 1884 a bust of Longfellow was placed in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey in London; he was the first American to be thus honored. Longfellow received wide public recognition with his initial volume of verse, Voices of the Night (1839), which contained the poem “A Psalm of Life.” His subsequent poetic works include Ballads (1841), in which he introduced some of his most famous poetry, such as “The Wreck of the Hesperus,” ”The Village Blacksmith,” ”The Skeleton in Armor,” and “Excelsior”; and three notable long narrative poems on American themes: Evangeline (1847), about lovers separated during the French and Indian War (1754-1763); The Song of Hiawatha (1855), addressing Native American themes; and The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858), about a love triangle in colonial New England. Longfellow's other works include The Seaside and the Fireside (1849); Tales of a Wayside Inn (1863), containing the well-known poem “Paul Revere's Ride”; and Ultima Thule (1880). Longfellow also made a verse translation of The Divine Comedy (3 volumes, 1865-1867) by Italian poet Dante Alighieri. Longfellow's poetic work is characterized by familiar themes, easily grasped ideas, and clear, simple, melodious language. Most modern critics, however, are not in accord with the high opinion that was generally held of the author by his contemporaries, and his works are often criticized as sentimental. Nevertheless, Longfellow remains one of the most popular of American poets, primarily for his simplicity of style and theme and for his technical expertise, but also for his role in the creation of an American mythology. His verse was also instrumental in reestablishing a public audience for poetry in the United States.

 

Whitman, Walt (1819-1892), American poet, whose work boldly asserts the worth of the individual and the oneness of all humanity. Whitman’s defiant break with traditional poetic concerns and style exerted a major influence on American thought and literature. Born near Huntington, New York, Whitman was the second of a family of nine children. His father was a carpenter. The poet had a particularly close relationship with his mother. When Whitman was four years old, his family moved to Brooklyn, New York, where he attended public school for six years before being apprenticed to a printer. Two years later he went to New York City to work in printing shops. He returned to Long Island in 1835 and taught in country schools. In 1838 and 1839 Whitman edited a newspaper, the Long-Islander, in Huntington. When he became bored with the job, he went back to New York City to work as a printer and journalist. There he enjoyed the theater, the opera, and—always an omnivorous reader—the libraries. Whitman wrote poems and stories for popular magazines and made political speeches. After several years spent at various jobs, including building houses, Whitman began writing a new kind of poetry and thereafter neglected business. In 1855 Whitman issued the first of many editions of Leaves of Grass, a volume of poetry in a new kind of versification, far different from his sentimental rhymed verse of the 1840s. Because he immodestly praised the human body and glorified the senses, Whitman was forced to publish the book at his own expense, setting some of the type himself. His name did not appear on the title page, but the engraved frontispiece portrait shows him posed, arms akimbo, in shirt sleeves, hat cocked at a rakish angle. In a long preface he announced a new democratic literature, “commensurate with a people,” simple and unconquerable, written by a new kind of poet who was affectionate, brawny, and heroic and who would lead by the force of his magnetic personality. Whitman spent the rest of his life striving to become that poet. The 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass contained 12 untitled poems, written in long cadenced lines that resemble the unrhymed verse of the King James Version of the Bible. The longest and generally considered the best, later entitled “Song of Myself,” was a vision of a symbolic “I” enraptured by the senses, vicariously embracing all people and places from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. No other poem in the first edition has the power of this poem, although “The Sleepers,” another visionary flight, symbolizing life, death, and rebirth, comes nearest.

Stimulated by a letter of congratulations from the eminent New England essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, Whitman hastily put together another edition of Leaves of Grass ( 1856), with revisions and additions; he would continue to revise the collection throughout his life. The most significant 1856 poem is “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry,” in which the poet vicariously joins his readers and all past and future ferry passengers. In the third edition (1860), Whitman began to give his poetry a more allegorical structure. In “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking,” a mockingbird (the voice of nature) teaches a little boy (the future poet) the meaning of death. Italian opera, of which Whitman was extremely fond, strongly influenced the music of this poem. Two new clusters of poems, “Children of Adam” and “Calamus,” deal with sexual love and male friendship. Drum-Taps (1865, later added to the 1867 edition of Leaves) reflects Whitman’s deepening awareness of the significance of the American Civil War (1861-1865) and the hope for reconciliation between North and South. Sequel to Drum-Taps ( 1866) contains “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d,” the great elegy for President Abraham Lincoln, and one of Whitman’s most popular works, “O Captain! My Captain!” ”Passage to India” (1871) used modern communications and transportation as symbols for its transcendent vision of the union of East and West and of the soul with God.

During the Civil War Whitman ministered to wounded soldiers in Union army hospitals in Washington, D.C. He remained there, working as a government clerk, until 1873, when he suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed. Today, Whitman’s poetry has been translated into every major language. It is widely recognized as a formative influence on the work of such American writers as Hart Crane, William Carlos Williams, and Wallace Stevens. Allen Ginsberg in particular was inspired by Whitman’s bold treatment of sexuality. Many modern scholars have sought to assess Whitman’s life and literary career.

Dickinson, Emily Elizabeth (1830-1886), America’s best-known female poet and one of the foremost authors in American literature. Dickinson’s simply constructed yet intensely felt, acutely intellectual writings take as their subject issues vital to humanity: the agonies and ecstasies of love, sexuality, the unfathomable nature of death, the horrors of war, God and religious belief, the importance of humor, and musings on the significance of literature, music, and art.

Born in Amherst, Massachusetts, Dickinson was the middle child of a prominent lawyer and one-term United States congressional representative, Edward Dickinson, and his wife, Emily Norcross Dickinson. From 1840 to 1847 she attended the Amherst Academy, and from 1847 to 1848 she studied at the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (now Mount Holyoke College) in South Hadley, a few miles from Amherst. With the exception of a trip to Washington, D.C., in the late 1850s and a few trips to Boston for eye treatments in the early 1860s, Dickinson remained in Amherst, living in the same house on Main Street from 1855 until her death. During her lifetime, she published only about 10 of her nearly 2,000 poems, in newspapers, Civil War journals, and a poetry anthology. The first volume of Poems of Emily Dickinson, edited by Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, was published in 1890, after Dickinson’s death. The notion that Dickinson was extremely reclusive is a popular one, but it is at best a partial truth. Dickinson’s first editors molded their descriptions of her and her work to conform to 19th-century stereotypes of women writers and to downplay qualities that did not match the conventional conception. Popular depictions of Dickinson, as in the play The Belle of Amherst (1976), have perpetuated a belief that she always dressed in white, was sensitive and reclusive in nature, and had an unrequited or secret love. Although she never married and certainly became more selective over the years about the company she kept, Dickinson was far more sociable than most descriptions would have us believe. She frequently entertained guests at her home and at the home of her brother and sister-in-law during her 20s and 30s; one friend commented that Dickinson was so surrounded by friends at a party that she had no chance to talk with her. In addition, Dickinson kept up a voluminous correspondence with friends, family, and one of her spiritual mentors, minister Charles Wadsworth. Although it has long been believed that various correspondents, including Higginson and editor Samuel Bowles, served as literary guides, there is no evidence that they influenced her writing. Biographers are increasingly recognizing the vital role of Dickinson’s sister-in-law, Susan Dickinson, in her writing.In 1998 Open Me Carefully: Emily Dickinson’s Intimate Letters to Susan Huntington Dickinson was published, documenting the two women’s friendship.

Dickinson enjoyed the King James Version of the Bible, as well as authors such as English writers William Shakespeare, John Milton, Charles Dickens, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Eliot, and Thomas Carlyle. Dickinson’s early style shows the strong influence of Barrett Browning, Robert Browning, and English poets John Keats and George Herbert.

Dickinson often used variations of meters common in hymn writing, especially iambic tetrameter (eight syllables per line, with every second syllable being stressed). She frequently employed off-rhymes. Examples of off-rhymes include ocean with noon and seam with swim in the lines “Than Oars divide the Ocean, / Too silver for a seam — / Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon / Leap, plashless as they swim” from the poem “A Bird came down the Walk.” Dickinson used common language in startling ways, a strategy called defamiliarization. This technique would, as she put it, “distill amazing sense / From ordinary Meanings” and from “familiar species.” Her poem “A Bird came down the Walk” also illustrates her use of defamiliarization: “A Bird came down the Walk— /...drank a Dew /...stirred his Velvet Head” and then “unrolled his feathers / And rowed him softer home” while “Butterflies” leap “off Banks of Noon.” Dickinson’s short poetic lines, condensed by using intense metaphors and by extensive use of ellipsis (the omission of words understood to be there), contrasted sharply with the style of her contemporary Walt Whitman, who used long lines, little rhyme, and irregular rhythm in his poetry.

In the early stages of her career, Dickinson’s handwritten lyrics imitated the formalities of print, and her poetic techniques were conventional, but she later began to attend to the visual aspects of her work. For example, she arranged and broke lines of verse in highly unusual ways to underscore meaning and she created extravagantly shaped letters of the alphabet to emphasize or play with a poem’s sense. She also incorporated cutouts from novels, magazines, and even the Bible to augment her own use of language.

Although few of Dickinson’s poems were formally published during her lifetime, she herself “published” by sending out at least one-third of her poems in the more than 1,000 letters she wrote to at least 100 different correspondents. Dickinson’s method of binding about 800 of her poems into 40 manuscript books and distributing several hundred of them in letters is now widely recognized as her particular form of self-publication. She also read her poems aloud to several people, including her cousins Louise and Frances Norcross, over a period of three decades.

 

Определение логики. Формы мышления. Разнообразие логики.

Язык и логика. Язык логики. Логические константы и определения.

Законы мышления и законы логики.

 
 


Логика интуитивна и общеизвестна, поскольку законы логики лежат в основе нашего мышления. Всякое движение мысли опирается на эти законы, и без них невозможно. Можно постоянно применять эти законы и не иметь ясного представления ни об одном из них.

Но вместе с тем логика и сложна. Основное содержание логических высказываний формируется на особом, специально для этих целей созданном искусственном языке. На привычное и устоявшееся нужно взглянуть новыми глазами и увидеть глубину за тем, что представлялось само собой разумеющимся.

Так что же такое «логика»?

Вот несколько определений:

* Логикой называют науку о законах правильного мышления.

* Логика – наука о правильных формах мышления.

* Логика – наука о законах и операциях правильного мышления.

* Логика – наука, исследующая структуру мышления, раскрывает лежащие в его основе закономерности движения к истине.

Кстати: слово «логика» многозначно. Нередко говорят о логике событий, логике характера и т.п. Здесь имеется в виду определенная последовательность и взаимозависимость событий и поступков. Слово «логика» употребляется и в связи с процессами мышления (отнюдь не подразумевая их научность), например: “Логично?”

Можно привести еще массу других определений. Но дело не в количестве. Определение должно быть четким, полным и ясным. Остановимся поэтому на таком определении логики:

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Эпические мотивы в творчестве Генри Мелвилла («Моби Дик»). Экзистенциальные и политические идеи в романе | Логика — наука о формах мышления, законах и правилах рассуждения
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