Etymological Characteristics of the English Vocabulary

Апреля 2013 года

Л.С. Жаркова

Проректор по УМО и филиалам

РАСПИСАНИЕ

Гр. 08-П

Расписание обзорных лекций ГЭК

специальность 030301 «Психология» на 2012/2013 уч.год

8 апреля, понедельник
Доц.Макаревская Ю.Э.	9.40-11.10	ауд. 305
Доц. Смирнова А.А.	11.20-12.50	ауд. 305
9 апреля, вторник
Доц. Шуванов И.Б.	9.40-12.50	ауд.312
10 апреля, среда
Доц. Петросьян С.Н.	13.10-14.40	ауд.308
Ст.преп. Макаревская И.Г.	14.50-16.20	ауд.308

Декан ЮФ _______________ /Лебедева Н.В.

обзорных лекций и консультаций перед итоговым междисциплинарным экзаменом для студентов очной формы обучения по специальности 080109 «Бухгалтерский учет, анализ и аудит» (основная образовательная программа) со специализацией «Бухгалтерский учет, анализ и аудит (кроме банков и других финансово-кредитных организаций)»

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Расписание обзорных лекций и консультаций студентов 5 курса

хореографического факультета дневного отделения

(специальность Народное художественное творчество, специализация хореография (эстрадный, народный, бальный танец), квалификация художественный руководитель хореографического коллектива, преподаватель)

2012/2013 уч. год

Дисциплина	Дата	Время	Преподаватель	Аудитория
«Теория и история народной художественной культуры». Обзорная лекция	27 мая	14:00 -17:30	Богданов Г.Ф.
«Теория и история народной художественной культуры». Обзорная лекция	28 мая	10:00 -13:30	Блинова Г.П.	117 (3 к)
«Теория и история народной художественной культуры». Консультация	29 мая	14:00-15:30	Богданов Г.Ф.
«Теория и история народной художественной культуры». Консультация	30 мая	14:00-15:30	Блинова Г.П.	117 (3 к)

Учебно-методическое управление

Зам. декана хореографического факультета С.Н. Смольянин

1. The Origin of English Words.

2. Words of Native Origin.

3. Borrowed Words.

4. Causes and Ways of Borrowing.

5. Criteria of Borrowing

6. Assimilation of Borrowings.

7. Etymological Doublets.

8. Influence of Borrowings.

3.1. The origin of English words. As to the origin English words may be classified into two large sets: native and borrowed words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A borrowed word or a borrowing is a word taken over from another language and assimilated in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning, or at least in some of these aspects, according to the standards of the English language.

Besides not only words but also word-building affixes were borrowed into English, as is the case with –able, -ment, -ism etc., as well as word-groups in their foreign form, e.g. coup d’etat, vis-à-vis etc.

The term borrowing belongs to diachronic description of the word stock thus the words ‘wine, cheap, pound’ were introduced by the Romans into all Germanic dialects long before the Angles and the Saxons migrated to the British Isles and nowadays they are not distinguishable from words of native origin.

A clear borderline should be put between the terms ‘source of borrowing’ and ‘origin of the word’. The term ‘source of borrowing’ should be applied to the language from which the word was taken into English; the term ‘origin of the word’ should be applied to the language the word may be traced to.

3.2. Words of native origin. Native words being only30 percent of the English vocabulary are the most frequently used words as they constitute 80 percent of the 500 most frequent words compiled by Thorndyke and Longe (The Teachers’ Wordbook of 30,000 words. New York, 1959).

Native words comprise Indo-European, Common Germanic and English Proper.

The oldest layer of words in English are those of Indo-European origin, having common roots in all or most languages of Indo-European group. They denote elementary concepts without which no human communication is possible. There are several semantic groups in them:

1. Words denoting kinship, e.g. father (Vater, pater, padre), mother (Mutter, мать), son (Sohn, сын), daughter (Tochter, дочь), brother (Bruder, брат);

2. Words denoting parts of human body, e.g. foot (пядь), nose, lip, heart (сердце),ear, tooth, eye;

3. Words denoting animals, e.g. cow, swine, goose, wolf (Wolf, волк);

4. Words denoting plants, e.g. tree, birch (береза), corn (зерно);

5. Words denoting time of day, e.g. day, night;

6. Words denoting heavenly bodies and phenomena of nature, e.g. sun (die Sohne, солнце), moon, star, water (Wasser, вода),wind, wood, hill, stone;

7. Numerals from one to a hundred;

8. Numerous adjectives, e.g. red (cf. Ukr. рудий, R. рыжий),new, glad (гладкий), sad (сыт), quick, slow;

9. Pronouns – personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing) and demonstrative;

10. Numerous verbs, e.g. be (быть), stand (стоять), sit (сидеть), eat (есть), know (знать).

A much larger group of native vocabulary are Common Germanic words (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic). They represent words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main semantic groups are the same as in words of Indo-European origin:

1. Words denoting parts of human body, e.g. head, hand, arm, finger, bone;

2. Words denoting plants, e.g. oak, fir, grass;

3. Words denoting animals, e.g. bear, fox, calf;

4. Words denoting natural phenomena, e.g. rain, frost, storm, flood, ice;

5. Words denoting periods of time and seasons of the year, e.g. time, week, winter, spring, summer;

6. Words denoting landscape features, e.g. sea, land, ground, earth;

7. Words denoting human dwellings and furniture, e.g. house, room, bench;

8. Words denoting sea-going vessels, e.g. boat, ship;

9. Adjectives, e.g. green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good;

10. Verbs, e.g. see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink, bake, buy, drive, keep, learn, meet, rise, send, shoot;

11. Words denoting artefacts and materials, e.g. bridge, shop, coal, iron, lead, cloth;

12. Words denoting abstract notions, e.g. care, evil, hope, life, need;

13. Adverbs, e.g. down, out, before;

14. Words denoting articles of clothes, e.g. hat, short, shoe.

English Proper words in contrast to Indo-European and Common Germanic words can be approximately dated, words of this group appeared in the English language not earlier than the 5^th century, they are specifically English having no cognates in other languages. Some examples of English Proper words are: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always. The English Proper element also contains all the later formations, i.e. words which were made after the 5^th century according to English word-building patterns both from native and borrowed morphemes, e.g. ‘ beautiful ’ built from the French borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the English Proper words. It is natural that the number of such words is immense.

Most of the native words have undergone great changes in their semantic structure and as a result are nowadays polysemantic, e.g. the word ‘finger’ denotes not only a part of a hand as in Old English but also 1) the part of a glove covering one of the fingers; 2)a finger-like part in various machines; 3) a hand of a clock; 4) an index; 5) a unit of measurement. Most of words of the native origin are highly polysemantic.

Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency. Many of them enter a number of phraseological units, e.g. the word ‘heel’ enters the following units: ‘heel over head’ or ‘head over heels’; ‘ cool one’s heel’; show a clean pair of heels’; take to one’s heels’; turn on one’s heels’ etc.

Besides, the great stability and semantic peculiarities of native words account for their great derivational potential. Most words of this group make up large clusters of derived and compound words in the present-day language, e.g. the word ‘wood’ is the basis for the formation of the following words: ‘wooden, woody, wooded, woodcraft, woodcutter, woodwork’ and many others.

On the whole, the native element has been playing a significant role in the English language due to the fact that the native words are marked by stability, specific semantic characteristics, wide collocability, great derivational potential, wide spheres of application and high frequency value.

3.3. Borrowed words. Borrowing words from other languages has been characteristic of English throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings.

Different languages served as sources of borrowing at different periods of the development of the English language due to purely historical causes and facts among which the most important and most influential are: the Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests, and at present, direct linguistic contacts and political, economical and cultural relationships with other nations. So English during its historical development borrowed words from:

1) Celtic: 5^th – 6^th c. A.D.;

2) Latin: 1^st c. B.C., 7^th c. A.D., the Renaissance period – 14^th – 16^th c.;

3) Scandinavian: 8^th – 11^th c. A.D.;

4) French: Norman borrowings – 11^th – 13^th c. A.D., Parisian borrowings – the Renaissance period;

5) Greek: the Renaissance period;

6) Italian: the Renaissance period and later;

7) Spanish: the Renaissance period and later;

8) Russian: the Renaissance period and later;

9) German, Indian and other languages.

Let us now try to give a brief description to the main groups of borrowings according to the term of their appearance in the English language.

In the 1^st century B.C. the Germanic tribes, that later gave rise to the present-day nation of Englishmen, lived on the territory of Europe, which was occupied by the Roman Empire. So the 1^st layer of borrowings represents those from the Latin language. Semantically this group comprises mostly names of foodstuff and fruit and vegetables, e.g. butter (<Lat. butirum), cheese (<Lat. caseus), cherry (<Lat. cerasum), pear (<Lat. pirum), plum (<Lat. prunus), pea (<Lat. pisum), beet (<Lat. beta), pepper (<Lat. piper), cup (<Lat. cuppa), plant ((<Lat. planta), kitchen (<Lat. coquina), mill (<Lat. molina), port (<Lat. portus), wine (<Lat. vinum). The Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched.

The 5^th century A.D. as several of the Germanic tribes migrated across the English Channel to the British Isles they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. Through their numerous contacts with the Celts, the Anglo-Saxon languages assimilated a number of Celtic words, e.g. Modern English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle etc. Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, hills etc., e.g. Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from the Celtic words meaning ‘river’ and ‘water’. The name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn+dun in which the former is another Celtic word for ‘river’ and the latter stands for ‘a fortified hill’, the meaning of the whole being ‘ a fortress on the hill over the river’.

Besides, during this period some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, such as street (<Lat. strata via), wall (<Lat. vallum).

The 7^th century A.D. became significant for Christianization of England. As Latin was the official language of the Christian Church, so the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new wave of Latin borrowings. These loans came mostly from church Latin and indicated in the first place persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals, e.g. priest (<Lat. presbyter), bishop (<Lat. episcopus), monk (<Lat. monachus), nun (<Lat. nonna), candle (<Lat. candela). Besides, the first schools in England being church schools and the first teachers - priests and monks, it is only natural that educational terms were also borrowed from Latin, e.g. school (<Lat. schola<Gr.), scholar (<Lat. scholaris) and magister (<Lat. magister).

From the end of the 8^th century to the middle of the 11^th century England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which also left their trace on the English vocabulary. Examples of early Scandinavian borrowings are: to call, to cast, to die, to take, law, husband (<Sc. Hus+bondi, i.e. ‘inhabitant of the house’), window (<Sc. Vindauga, i.e. ‘the eye of the wind’), ill, loose, low, weak. Some of the Scandinavian borrowings of this period are easily recognized by the initial sk- combination, e.g. ski, skill, skin, skirt, sky.

Besides some English words changed their meaning under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root, e.g. the Old English bread which meant ‘piece’ got its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian braud, or the Old English dream meaning ‘joy’ adopted the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr, cf. R. дрёма.

In 1066 after the famous battle of Hastings the Norman Conquest began which lasted for about two hundred years and brought many events in national, social, political life as well as lead to numerous borrowings from the Norman dialect of the French language. These borrowings formed various semantic groups penetrating every aspect of social life:

Administrative words: council, government, parliament, power, state;

Legal terms: court, crime, judge, justice, prison;

Military terms: army, battle, enemy, officer, soldier, war;

Educational terms: lesson, library, pen, pencil, pupil, science;

Names for everyday life objects: autumn, dinner, plate, river, saucer, supper, table, uncle;

Names of foodstuff: veal, beef, pork etc.

The Renaissance period in England as elsewhere was marked by significant interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. Science, art and culture were developing, hence a considerable number of Greek and Latin borrowings in these strata of the language, and these are mostly abstract words and numerous scientific and artistic terms, e.g. to create, to elect, intelligent, filial, major, minor, moderate, permanent, datum, method, music, phenomenon, philosophy, status <Latin; atom, cycle, ethics, aesthetic <Greek.

French borrowings of this period happened to be from the Parisian dialect, e.g. ballet, bourgeois, machine, matinee, police, regime, routine, scene, technique etc.

Italian also gave a large number of words to the English language, e.g. alarm, bankrupt, bulletin, colonel, dilettante, fascist, fiasco, gazette, graffiti, manifesto, piano, opera, violin etc.

Not only words as a whole were borrowed by the language. As soon as a borrowing was not felt in the language as something alien and there accumulated enough words of similar structural patterns, their constituent morphemes both roots and affixes began their independent life in producing new words, thus there appeared in the English language hybrid words, i.e. words consisting of a native root and foreign affixes or vice versa, e.g. eatable=native root+ Latin suffix; lovable=native root+ Latin suffix; dentist= Latin root+ Greek suffix; schoolboy= Greek root+ English root etc.

To distinguish a borrowing in the English language let us enumerate some of the derivational affixes of Latin and French origin.

Latin affixes: -ion, -tion, -ate, -ute, -ct, -d(e), dis-, -able, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar in the words like session, relation, create, attribute, conduct, applaud, disable, curable, accurate, constant, absent, major, cordial, solar etc.

French affixes: -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess, -ous, en- in the words like endurance, patience, government, village, actress, serious, enable etc.

Spanish borrowings of the earlier period are mostly names of fruit and vegetables, recent groups of these are either trade terms or names of dances and musical instruments, e.g. apricot, banana, cocoa, potato, tomato, tobacco, cargo, embargo, tango, rumba, habanera, guitar etc.

Among early Russian borrowings are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as copeck, pood, rouble, sable, starlet, vodka, and also words relating to the peculiarities of Russian nature such as steppe, taiga, tundra. Besides a large group of borrowings came into the English language through Russian literature of the 19^th century, such as Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo, volost, ukase etc., and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist. After the October Revolution of 1917 such words as collectivization, udarnik, Komsomol and translation-loans shock-worker, collective farm, five-year plan, Young Communist League, Soviet power were borrowed into English. Soviet achievements in space exploration made many languages of the world accept the word sputnik, and changes in the political life of Russia in 1990-ies influenced the process of borrowing of such words as glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik. Russian borrowings are still felt as alien words and remain barbarisms, though some Russian affixes began their word building activities in English, e.g. Russian suffix –nik.

German borrowings comprise about 800 words, some of them have classical roots as for example in geological terms: cobalt, bismuth, zinc, quarts, gneiss, wolfram. Besides there are words denoting everyday life objects, e.g. iceberg, lobby, rucksack, kindergarten. During the 2^nd World War such words were borrowed as Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, Blitzkrieg, Gestapo, gas chamber etc. in the recent period such words as Berufsverbot, Volkswagen, gastarbeiter, ostarbeiter penetrated the English vocabulary.

England has been a colonial state for many centuries, so naturally many of the colonial words from Indian and other languages were borrowed into English, e.g. rickshaw, rajah, bungalow, jungle etc.

Alongside borrowings proper, translation and semantic borrowings can be distinguished. Translation borrowings, or translation loans, are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to the patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation, e.g. wall newspaper <R. стенгазета, lightning war <Germ. Blitzkrieg, masterpiece <Germ. Meisterstuck, wonder child<Germ. Wunderkind, first dancer <Ital. prima ballerina, collective farm< Rus. колхоз.

Semantic borrowing is the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the English word ‘pioneer’ meant ‘explorer’ and ‘one who is among the first in new fields of activity’, but under the influence of the Russian word’пионер’ it has come to mean ‘a member of the Young Pioneers’ League’.

Due to the process of borrowing the English word stock was replenished by international words, i.e. words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowing from one ultimate source, e.g. antenna, music, radio. International words play an especially important role in different terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. Due to the accelerated rate of development of science and technology such international words enriched the English language as algorithm, antibiotics, automation, bionics, gene, cyborg etc. The origin of some international words reflects the history of world culture, the mankind’s debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of words connected with architecture, painting and especially music, e.g. allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone, concert, duet, opera, piano etc.

We find numerous English words in the sphere of sport, e.g. football, out, match, tennis, time out, ring, referee, set etc. There are English international words referring to clothing, e.g. jersey, pullover, sweater, tweed, shorts, leggings etc.

International words must not be confused with other words which ultimately come from the same source but have diverged in meaning. Such words are called ‘ false friends’, or ‘false cognates’, cf. accurate and аккуратный, conserves and консервы.

3.4. Causes and Ways of Borrowing. As it has already been stated above the causes of borrowing are historic and linguistic factors. While historical causes of borrowing from different languages have been studied with a considerable degree of thoroughness and briefly outlined in the present study, the purely linguistic reasons for borrowing are still open to investigation. The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of contacts, but also on the degree of the genetic and structural proximity of languages concerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the influence. This largely accounts for the well-marked contrast between the French and the Scandinavian influence on the English language. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages which were closely related to Old English some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages, e.g. pronouns they, their, them; a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words as they were from the same root and the connection between them was easily seen, e.g. drop (Anglo-Saxon) – drip (Scand.), true (Anglo-Saxon) – tryst (Scand.); the Scandinavian influence even accelerated to some degree the development of the grammatical structure of English.

Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech. Oral borrowing took place in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings have gained importance. Words borrowed orally are usually short and they have undergone considerable phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes, e.g. Latin< inch, mill, street. Written borrowings preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound form as their assimilation is a long process, e.g. French< communiqué, belles-lettres, naïveté.

3.5. Criteria of Borrowing. Borrowings preserve their peculiarities for a comparatively long time and it makes it possible to work out some criteria for distinguishing them.

In some cases the pronunciation of the word, its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word, e.g. wal tz (Germ.), ps ychology (Greek), souffl é (French) etc. the initial positions of the initial sounds like in the words ‘ v illage, j ungle’ or of the letters ‘x, j, z’ is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (Italian), vase (French), gesture (Latin), jungle (Hindi), zeal (Latin), zinc (German) etc.

The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms are also conspicuous of borrowed words, e.g. neur osis (Greek), violon cello (Italian); irregular plural forms in the words papyr a (<Greek papyrus), pastoral i (<Italian pastorale), beau x (<French beau), bacteri a (<Latin bacterium) serve as indicators of loan words.

Lexical meaning of the word must also be taken in consideration, e.g. the concept denoted by the words rickshaw, pagoda (<Chinese) prove that these words are borrowings.

These criteria are not always helpful as some early borrowings have been assimilated to the recipient language to such an extent that can hardly be recognized as borrowings without a historical research, e.g. chalk, mile (<Latin), ill, ugly (<Scandinavian), enemy, car (<French).

3.6. Assimilation of Borrowings.

The term 'assimilation of borrowings'is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.

According to the degree of assimilation all borrowed words can be divided into three groups:

1) completely assimilated borrowings;

2) partially assimilated borrowings;

3) unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms.

1. Completely assimilated borrowed words follow all morpholo­gical, phonetical and orthographic standards. They take an active part in word-formation. The morphological structure and motivation of completely assimilated borrowings remain usually transparent, so that they are morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of borrowed words that contain them (e.g. the French suffixes -age, -ance and -ment).

Borrowings properare words taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings, e.g. cheese (the word of the first layer of Latin borrowings), husband (Scand), face (Fr), animal (the Latin word borrowed during the revival of learning).

It is important to mention that a loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants may change and become specialized in the new system. For example, the word sport had a much wider scope in Old French denoting pleasures, making merry and entertainments in general. Being borrowed into Middle English in this character it gradually acquired the meaning of outdoor games and exercise.

2. Partially assimilated borrowed wordsmay be subdivided
depending on the aspect that remains unaltered into:

a) borrowings not completely assimilated graphically. These are, for
instance, words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is
not pronounced: ballet, buffet. Some may keep a diacritic mark: cafe,
cliche. Specifically French digraphs (ch, qu, ou, etc.) may be retained
in spelling: bouquet, brioche;

b ) borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically. For example,
some of French borrowings keep the accent on the final syllable:
machine, cartoon, police. Others, alongside the peculiarities in stress,
contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the
English language and do not occur in the native words, e.g. [3] —
bourgeois, prestige, regime;

c ) borrowings not assimilated grammatically. For example, nouns
borrowed from Latin or Greek have kept their original plural forms:
crisis:: crises, phenomenon:: phenomena. Some of these also have
English plural forms, but in that case there may be a difference in lexical
meaning, as in indices ('an alphabetical list of names, subjects, etc. at
the back of a book, with the numbers of the pages where they can be
found'):: indexes ('a standard by which the level of something can be
judged or measured');

d) borrowings not assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may
denote foreign clothing (e.g. sari, sombrero); foreign titles and professions
(e.g. shah, rajah, toreador); foreign vehicles (e.g. rickshaw (Chinese);
foreign food and drinks (e.g. pilau (Persian), sherbet (Arabian)); etc.3.

3. Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms. The third group is not universally accepted, as it may be argued that words not changed at all cannot form a part of the English vocabulary as they occur in speech only, but do not enter the language. This group includes words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are correspond­ing English equivalents, e.g. the Italian addio, ciao — 'good-bye'.

The third group is not universally accepted, as it may be argued that words not changed at all cannot form a part of the English vocabulary as they occur in speech only, but do not enter the language.

3.7. Etymological doublets. The changes a borrowed word has had to undergo depending on the date of its penetration are the main cause for the existence of the so-called etymological doublets. Etymological doublets are two or more words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonetic shape and meaning. For example, the words whole (originally meant 'healthy', 'free from disease') and hale both come from OE hal: one by the normal development of Old English “a” into “o”, the other from a northern dialect in which this modification did not take place. Only the latter has survived in its original meaning.

Etymological doublets may enter the vocabulary in different ways. Some of them, such as shirt (native) and skirt (Scand.) or shrew (native) and screw (Scand.) consist of a native word and a borrowed word, others are represented by borrowings from different languages which historically originate from the same root, such as senior (Lat.) and sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) and channel (Fr.), captain (Lat.) and chieftain (Fr.). Sometimes words were borrowed from the same language but in different periods, such as corpse (Norm.Fr.) and corps (Par.Fr.), travel (Norm.Fr.) and travail (Par.Fr.), cavalry (Norm.Fr.) and chivalry (Par.Fr.), gaol (Norm.Fr.) and jail (Par.Fr.). Besides there are etymological triplets, i.e. groups of three words of common root, that occur rarer but still there are such examples: hospital (Lat.) – hostel (Norm.Fr.) – hotel (Par.Fr.), to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm.Fr.) – to chase (Par.Fr.). A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was derived, such as history – story, fantasy – fancy, fanatic – fan, defence – fence, courtesy – curtsy, shadow- shade.

3.8. Influence of borrowings. The role of borrowings was so great that they exerted much influence on the development of English and brought about different changes or innovations practically on all the levels of the language system. Borrowed words have influenced: 1) the phonetic structure of English words and the sound system; 2) the word-structure and the system of word-building: 3) the semantic structure of English words; 4) the lexical territorial divergence. 1.The influence of borrowings on the phonetic structure of
English words and the sound system resulted in:

1) the appearance of a number of words of new phonetic structure
with strange sounds or familiar sounds in unusual positions, e.g. waltz,
psychology. souffle. The initial [ps], [pn], [pt] are used in English
alongside the forms without the initial sound [p];

2) the appearance of a new diphthong [oi] which came into English
together with such French words as point, joint, poise;

3) the reappearance of the initial [sk] mostly due to Scandinavian
borrowings;

4)the development of the Old English variant phonemes [fj and [v]
into different phonemes: [v] came to be used initially {vain, valley) and
[f] in the intervocal position {effect, affair);

5)the appearance of the affricate [d$] at the beginning of words (In the Middle English period the affricate ‘dg’ was found at the end or in the middle of words, e.g. bridge — OE bricj, singe — OE senc^ean.), e.g.
jungle, journey, gesture.

2. The influence of borrowings on the word-structure and the
system of word-building resulted in:

1) the appearance of a number of new structural types in which some highly-productive borrowed affixes (e.g. re-, inter-, -er, -ism) can combine with native and borrowed bases. Other borrowed affixes, not so productive (e.g. со-, de~, -ant, -ic), combine only with Latinate bases, i.e. bases of Latin, Greek or French origin, e.g. inform-ant{inform- < Old French < Latin), defend-ant {defend- < Old French < Latin);

2) the ousting of native affixes by borrowed ones, e.g. the prefix pre-
has replaced the native prefix fore- which was highly-productive in
Middle and Early New English;

3) the appearance of a great number of words with bound mor­phemes, e.g. tolerate, tolerable, tolerance, toleration;

4) the change of the very nature of word-clusters which now unite
not only words of the root-morphemes, but of different synonymous
root-morphemes, e.g. spring — vernal, sea — maritime.

3. The influence of borrowings on the semantic structure of
English words resulted in:

1) the differentiation of borrowed words and synonymous native
words in meaning and use, cf.: feed (native) — nourish (L);

2) the narrowing of meaning of native words due to the differentiation
of synonyms. For instance, the word stool of native origin in Old English
denoted 'any article of furniture designed for sitting on'. Under the
influence of the French borrowing chair the word stool came to be used
as the name for only one kind of furniture, i. e. 'a seat that has three or
four legs, but no back or arms';

3) the extension of meaning of native English words or the acquisition
of additional or new meanings, e.g. the political meanings of shock and
deviation have come from the Russian ударный and уклон.

4. The influence of borrowings on the lexical territorial
divergence resulted in:

1) the intensification of the difference between the word-stock of the
literary national language and dialects owing to the borrowing of words
into the literary national language which are not found in the dialects,
and vice versa;

2) the enlargement of the word-stock of different dialects and national
variants of English in the UK. For example, Irish English has the following
words of Celtic origin: shamrock — трилистник, dun — холм,
colleen — девушка, etc. In the Northern and Eastern dialects there are
many Scandinavian borrowings, e.g. busk — 'get ready'; тип — 'mouth';

3) the acquisition by literary national words of a status of dialectal
words, e.g. heal — скрывать, покрывать (ОЕ helan).

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