In Terms of CV, VC Relations

Contextual and Idiolectal Variants of English Vowels

/i:/

The phoneme /i:/ may occur in initial and in terminal positions: epoch /'i:pυk/, tea /ti:/.

/i:/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pee, be, we

labio-dental: feet, veal

lingual, forelingual

interdental: theme, the

alveolar: tea, deal, sea, zeal, lee, neat

palato-alveolar: she, cheese

post-alveolar, cacuminal: read

lingual, medio-lingual: yield

lingual, backlingual: key

pharyngal (glottal): he

/i:/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: leap, seem

labio-dental: leaf

lingual, forelingual

dental, interdental: sheath, breathe

alveolar: eat, deed, spleen

palato-alveolar: leash, each

lingual, backlingual: leak, league

It may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis and nasal consonants.

Before dark [l] a centring glide may be heard.

RP speakers try to avoid any glide in /i:/ pronunciation as "vulgar", typical of Cockney, Birmingham, Southern USA and other low prestige dialects.

/ı/

The phoneme /ı/ occurs in initial and in terminal position. It never occursfinally in a stressed open syllable: enough /ı'n Λ f/, pity /'pıtı/.

/ı/ varies with /ı/ in unstressed syllables, e. g. helpless, remove. In words with prefixes pre, de, re /i:/ is pronounced, if the prefix is used to convert a word into a new form, e. g. modify — premodify, contami­nate - decontaminate, /i:/ instead of /ə/ tends to be the dominant form, see the latest edition of the English pronouncing dictionary: appear — reappear /ə'рıə/ — /ri:ə'рıə/.

/ı/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pit, wit

labio-dental: fit, vic

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thin, this

alveolar: tin, din, knit

palato-alveolar: ship, chin

post-alveolar, cacuminal; rid

lingual, medio-lingual: yin, yill

lingual, backlingual: kin, give

pharyngal: hit

[ı] followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: lip, nib

labio-dental: if, live

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: myth

alveolar: it, did, this

palato-alveolar: fish, ridge

lingual, backlingual: pick, big

Final /ı/ in modern RP is considerably lower and more centralized than in more old-fashioned speech /f Λ nı, fru:tı/. In Yorkshire and Lan­cashire a very open vowel, almost like /e/ is found finally, e. g. /f Λ ne/. /ı/ is centralized and lowered before dark [l], e. g. still, silk.

/e/

The phoneme /e/ may occur in initial position, but it never occurs terminally.

/e/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pet, bet

labio-dental: fence, vest

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: ten, dead

palato-alveolar: shelf, chest

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rest

lingual, medio-lingual: yes

lingual, backlingual: kept

pharyngal (glottal): help

/e/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: step, ebb

labio-dental: chef

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: death

alveolar: ate, dead, less

palato-alveolar: fresh, fetch

lingual, backlingual: wreck, beg

Some speakers have a more central /e/ quality, sometimes with a final /ə/ glide.

/e/ is lowered and centralized before dark [l], e. g. tell, felt. /e/ is closer before velars, e. g. peg, peck.

/æ/

The phoneme /æ/ may occur in initial position but it never occurs terminally.

/c/ is longer before lenis and nasals in: bag, mad, man, sad, bad (that theonly example before a fortis).

Sometimes /ae/ has a pharyngal constriction — creaky voice quality.

In affected RP some speakers pronounce /æ/ with a following /э/ ele­ment — diphthongization.

/æ/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pat, bad

labio-dental: fan

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thank, that

alveolar: tan, dad

palato-alveolar: shall, jam

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran

lingual, medio-lingual: Yankee

lingual, backlingual: cat

pharyngal (glottal): ham

/æ/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: clap, cab

labio-dental: have

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: hath

alveolar: hat, dad

palato-alveolar: smash, badge

lingual, backlingual: back, bag, sang

A very open /æ/ is heard from young speakers.

/ a: /

The phoneme /a:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: army /a:'mı/, far /fa:/.

/a:/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: palm, bar

labio-dental: far, vast

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: tar, lark

palato-alveolar: shaft, chance, jar

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raft

lingual, medio-lingual: yard

lingual, backlingual: car, garden

pharyngal (glottal): harm

/a:/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: harp

labio-dental: starve

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: path

alveolar: heart, hard

palato-alveolar: marsh, large

lingual, backlingual: bark

A very back quality of /a:/ is typical of old-fashioned speech or affect­ed forms.

/ υ /

The phoneme /υ/ may occur in initial position but it never occurs in terminal position. The lip rounding is very slight.

/υ/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pot, box

labio-dental: fox, fog

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thong

alveolar: top, dog, sock

palato-alveolar: chop, job

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rob

lingual, medio-lingual: yonder

lingual, backlingual: cot, got

pharyngal (glottal): hot

/υ/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: hop, mob

labio-dental: off, of

lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: moth

alveolar: hot, old, was

palato-alveolar: wash

lingual, backlingual: lock, fog, wrong

/o:/

Thephoneme /o:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: orbit /'o:bit/, saw /so:/.

/o:/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: port, bought, war

labio-dental: for

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: path

alveolar: talk, door, saw

palato-alveolar: shore, jaw

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raw

lingual, medio-lingual: your

lingual, backlingual: core

pharyngal (glottal): horn

/o:/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: orb

labio-dental: cough

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: north

alveolar: ought, pause

palato-alveolar: scorch, gorge

lingual, backlingual: fork

Some speakers pronounce /oə/ in words with ore, e.g. sore /soə/. It is heard in old-fashioned RP and prevails in dialects.

/o:/ may be pronounced instead of /uə/ in: sure /ςo:/, you 're /jo:/, poor /jo:/. More open varieties of /oı/ characterize old-fashioned speech.

/Λ/

The phoneme / Λ / occurs in initial position, but it never occurs termi­nally. It is the shortest of the checked vowels.

/ Λ / preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: but, worry

labio-dental: fuss, vulgar

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thunder, thus

alveolar: tub, duck

palato-alveolar: shut, just

post-alveolar, cacuminal: run

lingual, medio-lingua: young

lingual, backlingual: cut

pharyngal (glottal): hut

/ Λ / followed by the consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: up, tub

labio-dental: rough, love

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: doth

alveolar: bud, but

palato-alveolar: rush, judge

lingual, backlingual: duck, bug, young

/ Λ / is retracted before dark [l], e.g. dull.

/u/

The phoneme /u/ occurs initially mostly in proper names of foreign origin, e.g. Uruguay.

/u/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: put, book

labio-dental: foot

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: took, soot

palato-alveolar: should

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rook

lingual, backlingual: cook, good

pharyngal (glottal): hook

/u/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: room

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: put, hood, pull

palato-alveolar: push, bush, cushion

lingual, backlingual: took, cuckoo

Some speakers pronounce back-advanced /u/ as more central, e.g. good.

/u:/

Thephoneme /u:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: ooze /u:z/, undo /' Λ n'du:/.

/u:/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pool, boot

labio-dental: food

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: two, do, noon

posl-alveolar, cacuminal: roof

palato-alveolar: shoe, June

lingual, medio-lingual: youth

lingual, backlingual: cool, goose

phniyngal (glottal): who

/u:/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: stoop

labio-dental: hoof

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: tooth

alveolar: booth, choose, moon, fool

palato-alveolar: douch, rouge, pooch

lingual, backlingual: duke

/u:/ may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis or nasal consonants. It is a stable vowel before fortis. Similarly to /i:/ diphthongization /u:/ with a glide is considered "vulgar". All speakers pronounce /u:/ with a very wide glide after /j/, e.g. use, new. It is stable after dark [l]: loom /lu:m/.

/з:/

The /з:/ phoneme occurs in initial and in terminal position: early /'з:lı/, fur /fз:/. / з: / preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: purr, burr

labio-dental: fir, verge

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thirst

alveolar: term, dirt, sir

post-alveolar (cacuminal): Rontgen

palato-alveolar: shirt

lingual, medio-lingual: year

lingual, backlingual: curb, girl

pharyngal (glottal): her

/з:/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: kerb, worm

labio-dental: turf, serve

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: mirth

alveolar: hurt, bird

palato-alveolar: urge

lingual, backlingual: burg

Very open /з:/ is typical of old-fashioned speakers and affected

/ə/

The /ə/ phoneme occurs in initial and terminal position: a sofa /'səofə/.

/ə/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: banana, was

labio-dental: forsake, vocation

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: Thalia

alveolar: tobacco, domestication

post-alveolar (cacuminal): racoon

palato-alveolar: Japan

lingual, medio-lingual: yourself

lingual, backlingual: contain, galloon

pharyngal (glottal): habitual

/ə/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: wallop

labio-dental: of

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: Plymouth

alveolar: but, had, London

palato-alveolar: such (weakform)

lingual, backlingual: bulwark

/ə/ has two distinct allophones: 1) a closer one before velars, e.g. again; 2) an opener allophone in final position, similar to / Λ /, e.g. doctor, china, hitter.

Idiolectal variations are connected with the degree of openness in terminalpositions.

Diphthongs

/eı/

The phoneme /eı/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: aorta /eı'o:tə /, day /deı/.

/eı/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pay, bay

labio-dental: fail

lingual, lorelingual, apical

interdental: thane

alveolar: tale, day

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ray

palato-alveolar: shape, chain

lingual, medio-lingual: Yale

lingual, backlingual: cake

pharyngal (glottal): hay

/eı/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: ape

labio-dental: pave

lingual, lorelingual, apical

interdental: bathe

alveolar: ate, pace, laid, raise, ale, mane

palato-alveolar: age

lingual, backlingual: vague

/eı/ like other fronting diphthongs, is shortened before fortis, it results inthe reduction of the first element, compare /leıt — leıd/.

The glide of /eı/ is obscured or may be of /ə/ type.

There is some variation in the openness of the starting point. A more openquality is characteristic of low-prestige dialect forms, e.g. Cockney, Birmingham, Southern United States.

/aı/

The phoneme /aı/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: idea /aı'dıə/, my /maı/.

/aı/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pie, by

labio-dental: fight

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thigh

alveolar: tie, die

post-alveolar, cacuminal: right

palato-alveolar: shy, child

lingual, backlingual: kite

pharyngal (glottal): high

/aı/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: type, time

labio-dental: life

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: scythe

alveolar: night, ride

palato-alveolar: oblige

lingual, backlingual: like

The starting point may vary: a) close starting point, above /æ/ charac­terizes affected speech; b) retracted starting point is found in Cockney and Birmingham.

/аu/

The phoneme /аu/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: owl­ish /'aulıς/, now /nau/.

/аu/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pound, bound

labio-dental: fowl

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thousand

alveolar: town, down

post-alveolar, cacuminal: round

palato-alveolar: shout

lingual, backlingual: cow

pharyngal (glottal): how

/аu/ followed by consonants is modified by:

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: mouth

alveolar: rout, crowd

palato-alveolar: pouch

The first element is shorter before fortis, compare: /laut — laud/.

In prestigious old-fashioned speech the nucleus is more back. Very limii skirting points are found in many dialects.

/oı/

The phoneme /oı/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: oily / 'oılı/, boy /boı/.

/oı/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: point, boy

labio-dental: foil

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: toy, doily

post-alveolar, cacuminal: roister

lingual, medio-lingual: yoicks

lingual, backlingual: coy

pharyngal (glottal): hoist

/oı/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

labio-dental: coif

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: adroit, annoyed

palato-alveolar: voyage

lingual, backlingual: hoik

A very close nucleus may be heard only in dialects, e. g. Cockney.

/əu/

The phoneme /əu/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: obey /əu'beı/, no /nəu/.

/əu/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: poach, bow

labio-dental: foe

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: thole

alveolar: tow, dome

post-alveolar, cacuminal: road

palato-alveolar: show, choke

lingual, backlingual: coal, go

pharyngal (glottal): hoe

/əu/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: hope

labio-dental: loaf

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: growth

alveolar: wrote, rode

palato-alveolar: coach

lingual, backlingual: oak

The first element of the diphthong /əu/ is reduced before fortis conso­nants, compare: coat — code.

Before dark [l] the second element is sometimes lost, the diphthong reminds /з:/, e.g. coal /kəu1/ → /кз:1/, whole /həul/ → /hз:1/.

/ıə/

The phoneme /ıə/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: eery /'ıərı/, idea /aı'dıə/.

[ıə] preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: peer, beer

labio-dental: fear

lingual, forelingual, apical

interdental: theatre

alveolar: tear, dear

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rear

palato-alveolar: sheer

lingual, medio-lingual: year

lingual, backlingual: Keary

pharyngal(glottal): hear

/ıə/ followed by alveolar consonants and sonorants /m, n, r, 1/ is modified by: labial

bilabial: museum

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: beard, fierce, librarian, centennial

post-alveolar: appearing

The nucleus may begin closer, nearer to /ı/.

Dialect speakers have very close starting points, as a sequence of /i:/ to/ə/.

Very open endings are characteristic of affected speech.

Thisphoneme is highly variable, because the glide /ə/ is more sonorous than the nucleus /ı/. Thus /ıə/ may be divided morphologically into the nucleusand the glide in unstressed position, e. g. theoretical /θıə'retıkəl, θı-ə-'retıkəl/.

Greater sonority of the glide may lead to the /jə/, /jз:/ instead of /ıə/ articulation, e. g. frontier / 'fr Λ ntjə/.

/ıə/ may turn into /ı/ in terminal position: real /rıə1, rıl/.

In present day RP year is pronounced as /jз:/ (20%); /jıə/ (80%).

/εə/

Thephoneme /εə/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: airway /'εəweı/, hair /hεə/, compare /kəm'рεə/.

/εə/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: pear, bear

labio-dental: fare

lingual, forelingual, apical

inlcrdental: there

ulveolar: tear, dare

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rare

palato-alveolar: share

lingual, medio-lingual: Yare

lingual, backlingual: care

pharyngal(glottal): hare

/εə/ is followed by consonants:

labial

bilabial: Shairp

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: spared, scarce

The chief variation is in the presence or absence of the /ə/ off-glide.

The use of the stable nucleus /e/ is on the increase, e.g. scarce /skes/, scares /ske^əz/.

/uə/

The phoneme /uə/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: Urdu /'uədu/, poor /рuə/.

/uə/ preceded by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: poor, boor

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: tour, dour

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rural

palato-alveolar: sure

lingual, medio-lingual: your

lingual, backlingual: kursaal

pharyngal (glottal): houri

/uə/ followed by consonants is modified by:

labial

bilabial: gourmand

lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: bourdon

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rural

The phoneme /uə/ is highly variable because the nucleus of this diph­thong is more sonorous than the glide. Its pronunciation may lead to phonological disintegration of /uə/ into /u/ and /ə/: influence /'ınflu-əns/. In this case the morphological division takes place within the diphthong /uə/.

The greater sonority of the nucleus may lead to the substitution of /w/ for /u/: influence /'ınfluwəns/.

In an accented syllable /uə/ may turn into /o:/, e. g. sure, poor, your, you're and other high frequency words.

The phoneme /uə/ may turn into /u/ before dark [l]: usual /'ju:Зuəl/ → /'ju:Зul/

The use of /o:/ in such words as tourist, moor, sure, furious is becom­ing more and more frequent.

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